Points of departure:
Dilemmas of a Marxian psychology
Lines of orientation of
research
Crisis and social
categorization
The paradigm of the
relations of property
Marxian personality
psychology
The Principle of Social
Relations and the Principle of Activity**
The inconsistency of the
concept of “social environment”
The theory of activity and
the problem of social factors
Social relation and social
categorization
Another crisis in the
psychology: A possible motive for the Vygotsky-boom*
Two international
congresses of psychology: headliner and crisis
The discovery of an
alternative?
Philosophical
considerations and brain models
The brain model of John
Eccles.
The logic of natural
sciences.
The brain model of John Szentagothai.
Conceptions about
organizations transcending individual organism
The theory of an
object-oriented activity.
Gibson's ecological
perception theory.
Toward a theory of
structures producing meanings
Derived theoretical features –
Производные теоретические очерки
A dialogue about man, his
gene pool and his eccentricity
Social identity: Cognitive
dissonance or paradox?
The social relevance of a
psychosocial identity
I. General Economic
Psychology
II. Special Economic
Psychology
The structure of the
monograph
The economic psychology of
excellence
Measure of Outstanding
Social Identity
The competitor's costs and profit
Psychology of socio-economic systems
Determining economic
activity in a post-capitalist system
Is a rational
socio-economic system possible?
Psychology of Bolshevik-type systems
The bureaucratic state
governed by an illegal movement
The personality cult
genuinely and the socialism?
A detour into social
psychology
The unknown secret of a
well-known organization
The paradoxes of the Bolshevik-type
psycho-social structure in economy
A peculiar commodity: the
relation
Conveyor-belt to produce
relations
Bolshevik-type
self-discipline and the abstraction of perfect monopoly
O
психологическом
стaтусе
деятельности
и социaльного
отношения
Возможнaя
причинa
шумного
успeхa
идeй Л. C.
Выготского
Двa
мeждунaродных
конгрeссa по
психологии:
сeнсaция и
кризис
Aртeфaкты
в
психологичeском
экспeримeнтировaнии
Выготский:
aльтeрнaтивa
шизофрeнии
психологии?
O
значении и
его мозговом
аппарате
Философские
соображения
и модели
мозга
Модель
мозга Джона
Экклса (Eccles).
Модель
мозга Джона
Сентаготаи
(Szentagothai)
Концепции
формирований,
превосходящих
индивидуальный
организм
Теория
предметной
деятельности.
Экологическая
теория
восприятия
Гибсона.
Вaсилий
Дaвыдов и
судьбы нaшей
теории
Диада
Выготского и
четвериада
Рубинштейна
Journal of Russian and East European Psychology, vol. 50, no. 1,
January–February 2012, pp. 50–64.
Interview with Laszlo Garai on the
Activity Theory of Alexis Leontiev and his own
Theory of Social Identity as referred to the
Meta-Theory of Lev Vygotsky
Academician V. Lektorsky,
who has been the editor-in-chief of Voprosy filosofii, a journal of the Presidium of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, since 1987, and the new editor-in-chief who is
replacing him just at this time, V. Pruzhinin, conducted a joint interview with
the Hungarian scientist László Garai, a theoretical psychologist and researcher
in problems of social and economic psychology.
Academician Lektorsky: Professor Garai, Your psychological research has
always had a clearly expressed philosophical meaning. It is no accident that we
have published your writings in our journal.1 Allow us to ask you a few questions, the answers to
which may be of interest to readers of Voprosy filosofii.
You were influenced by
the cultural-historical theory of L.S. Vygotsky and the psychological theory of
activity of A.N. Leontiev. Today interest in the activity approach has been
revived among both our psychologists and philosophers. Some link the activity
approach to philosophical constructivism. What do you think about the prospects
for the cultural-historical theory and the theory of activity in psychology
and, more broadly, in the human sciences?
Professor Garai: These
prospects stem from the fact that psychology, ever since it split off from philosophy
in the nineteenth century, has investigated problems that are multiaspected. Rubinstein, for example, based on
Marxism before it got violated, cited the aspect of activity, the aspect of objectness, the aspect of community, and the aspect of historicity. Psychology itself, however, was
only interested in one of these aspects at a time. At first it was the object:
how we sense it, how our memory imprints and retains it, etc. Then came new
times, and behaviorism, with
its exclusive interest in activity, became the mainstream of psychology.
Behavior, after all, is activity; except it is a kind such that, in order to
study it, the object does not exist. The object has been reduced to a single
point, which is occupied by a stimulus rather than an object. And incidentally,
when behaviorism found
itself removed from its mainstream status, to which cognitivism had been assigned, the exclusive
focus was again on the object, which was ostensibly reflected by the
consciousness without the participation of any activity. So the theory of
activity of Leontiev, Galperin, and Luria actually discovered for our science not
activity as such, but activity mediated by an object, and, in turn, activity that mediates an object. Thus, instead of single-aspect
psychologies, a psychology was invented that organically synthesizes two of the
four Rubinstein aspects.
Of course, one might
think that two instead of four is a step back. But the point is that Rubinstein
derived from Marx’s writings not merely a methodology for an integrated
psychology (“merely”—yet after all, he accomplished a great feat in doing
this), and Leontiev and his associates worked out specific procedures
for experiments that applied the theory of activity to various fields.
Single-aspect psychologies had very narrow capabilities: within these
frameworks it was not possible to explain even such phenomena as attention or
memory, although attention and memory had been the oldest topics of the new
science as it emerged in the 1860s. The psychologists of those years (and some
to this day) applied the principle of reflection to both topics. According to
this, if a contemplated object whose properties are reflected through sensation
or perception is distinguished somehow from its space-time surroundings, this distinct
image is reflected in attention. Memory, meanwhile, ostensibly reflects the
association of objects with one another in space-time. So we psychologists
began to truly understand attention when its single-aspect interpretation was
replaced by the concept of the theory of activity on the orientational basis of activity.
The fate of the
psychology of memory developed in a more unfortunate way, since the theory of
activity was only able to rescue it to a lesser degree. For the simple reason
that memory is unquestionably associated with the aspect of historicity, and
today we already know that it is also intimately associated with the aspect of
community, the theory of activity regarding this pair of aspects is not doing
anything like the research that has been done regarding the first pair…
Pruzhinin: May
I interrupt you? I would like you to focus on your original theory of identity.
How does it tie in with this tradition?
Professor Garai: When I became acquainted with Leontiev’s theory of activity, I discovered a
curious contradiction. Both community and historicity were predefined for the
theory as a self-evident definition of everything that was investigated, but
they themselves were never investigated as problems. The experiments of thee
theory of activity always focus on the fact that a specific individual
confronts a specific object. Needless to say, the latter has a background, and
this cultural background, at least as long as the focus is on an individual
child, is mediated for him by the company of another individual. But is that
all there is to the aspect of historicity and the aspect of community? And even
if it is, how are they related to each other?
In the late 1960s (when
I was interning in Leontiev’s department, and immediately afterward was invited
under a Keldysh grant to the Institute of the History of Natural
Science and Technology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, where I did research in
the Scientific Discoveries Sector) I began to deal with these issues. Under Leontiev I did an experiment (the first
social-psychological one in the history of the Psychology Division),2 in which it turned out that
involuntary memory worked significantly more efficiently when it was supporting
the activity of any of my coworkers, associates, or comrades in the joint
activity than when it was providing an orientational foundation for my own activity.
By that time Henri Tajfel had already issued his appeal “for
a more social socialGL1
psychology.” He
pointed out to us that our test subject did not come to our laboratory out of a
vacuum but as a representative of the place that he actually occupied in an
actual social structure, and that society had been predefined for him,
accordingly, not in the form of another isolated individual but in the
structure off their relationship. There is likewise more to historicity than to
the history of the objectification of production and the passive presence of
that history in de-objectifying activity. Freud allowed us to understand that
in the course of a biographical history there is often a reversion not only to
stages of that individual history that were already traversed but also to
archaic points in the generic history of humankind (see, e.g., the Oedipus
complex). At the same time, Tajfel’s social psychology and Freud’s anthropological
psychology, as I ventured to point out earlier, are mutually exclusive, just
like behaviorism and cognitivism.
So I set myself the
goal of copying the methodological feat of the creators of the synthesis that
emerged from the theory of object-based activity, and in this manner to create
a methodology on a parallel track for the synthesis of this other pair of
psychologies. And then, out of this synthetic methodology, to work out
procedures for research efforts and for applied psychological research, as Leontiev, Gal’perin, Luria, Davydov, and hence their coworkers, did in
their time and for their scientific purposes.
Social identity for us is different from how
it is generally represented by the scientific and laymen’s idea regarding it.
For these ideas, social identity is an internal cultural-biological certainty:
whether I am a Hungarian or a Russian, Eastern Orthodox or Muslim, a man or a
woman, a black person or a white one. Here social identity is depicted perhaps
even as a cultural definition, but in any case as the same kind of definition
as it is in nature to be a dog or a turtle, to be carbon or ammonium hydroxide:
in any of these instances an internal property of the individual units will
determine how each of them will react to random events in the environment.
Nothing like this is found in our theory, for which social identity is
determined not by people’s property
but by relationships.
Relationships like
similarity and difference. I will show in a brief example what I mean:
Let us assume that we
are living in Germany in the early 1930s; I am a German proletarian, so I am,
without question, a carrier of the sociological
property or
definition of a German, and equally so the
property
of a proletarian. Can the social identity of a German or a proletarian be
ascribed to me? This will depend on how my relationships with others evolve and
how all of us interpret these relationships. Assume that Peter is also a
German, but a bourgeois, and Paul is also a proletarian, but a Jew. Here we
have shadings and similarities and differences both with Peter and with Paul. So then social
categorization transforms these contradictory shadings into categorical
unambiguousness.
I categorically exaggerate my similarity to either Peter or Paul and,
accordingly, my difference from the other, and what draws me together with the
latter and would separate me from the former is simultaneously understated. So
this categorization results in the identity of “workers of all countries,” or,
in terms of our example, the identity of Germans who represent and,
accordingly, represent to themselves “ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer” (a single people, a single empire,
a single leader). From what is predetermined sociologically, the categorization
produces social identity, and social categorization holds sway in the
background of history, in this case in the background of the Führer’s accession with a Nazi
dictatorship.
Pruzhinin: May I interrupt you with a question? This is what
I’d like to ask you: you have written about the crisis in psychology in regard
to its split into research, how should I put it, of a natural-scientific
perhaps, and hermeneutic nature. Can we assume that this split is been overcome
today? This is why I am asking: this question takes us back to Vygotsky. He has
a work about the crisis in psychology, but his followers, as they evolved
during the Soviet period, focused on activity, which they understood more as a
material, labor-related kind. Does this provide a way out of the crisis? Did
this emphasis precisely on the material, labor-related aspect of activity not
lead to an even more vigorous confrontation between physiological psychology
and, so to speak, hermeneutic psychology, which, incidentally, we have today.
Tell us, how do you see it?
Professor Garai: Unfortunately, I can only agree
with what was already implied in your question as an answer to it. This is
indeed the case.
The point is that, as a
faithful heir of enlightenment, I thought: if psychology is suffering from
something, in this case from the fact that it is split into a natural hemi-science
and a historical hemi-science, then as soon as a remedy for this illness is
offered, the patient will grab at it with both hands. But I did not take into
account that the psychologist is not predefined as an abstract being. He
received a behaviorist education at a university, and his confrere
was molded at another university as a cognitivist. They have lived half of their
professional lives, and they did not wish to know about each other. It turns
out that I was wrong to expect them to be happy at the news I am giving them
that there is a possibility of becoming reunited under the umbrella of Vygotsky’s theory . . . Which to them means
starting everything from scratch.
During the 1970s I
revisited the Maison
des Sciences de l’Homme in Paris on a business trip. At that time it had a
sector on social psychology, and a young scientist was working in that sector
who was a follower of Freudianism according to Lacan and Marxism according to Althusser. That is, to be more precise, he
was on the staff of that institute’s sector since he had set up an interinstitute group of like-minded colleagues
and he was doing his research work within this framework. Iswear by the midnight star, to use Lermontov’s words: all of
them (eight to ten people) were brilliantly gifted, and the same must be said
of the institute group (approximately the same number). I learned a great deal
from them, in particular during an hours-long discussion after my paper. They
had ordered up the paper about my aforementioned experiment, and they in turn
granted my request: for the social psychologists to invite psychoanalysts as
well, and for the latter to accept the invitation. Ultimately, the audience
accepted from the report, as many people put it, “almost everything.” Each of
the sides expressed puzzlement on only two points. One half of the audience
“did not understand” why I had introduced the “infamous” unconscious into my
experiment through involuntary memory, although I had to know that the
unconscious was inaccessible for experimentation, since it, the unconscious,
was nothing more than a myth. The other half of the audience was puzzled as to
why the devil I needed the infamous procedure of experimentation when I had to
know, as a marxien (don’t
forget that in those days—the few years before 1968 and the few years after
it—almost all intellectuals of more or less good quality in Europe were more or
less followers of Marx and declared themselves and one another to be marxian/marxien,3 in order thereby to distinguish
them from the Marxists in
the manner of the agitprop departments of the central committees of Communist
parties), that experimentation in the so-called social sciences served only to
disguise the fact that they were not sciences but bourgeois ideology (sic!).
And the two halves of the audience agreed that only when I mentioned the theory
of activity, then they declared in full accord that, while retaining their
entire friendship and fondness for Laszlo, they considered it impermissible in
the last third of the twentieth century to bring into a scientific discussion
the infamous “reflection” of so-called objective reality and the infamous
conditioned-reflex response by means of behavior, which, they went on, for some
reason I called activity.
I am exaggerating very
little here.4 And at the same time I am not being
ironic in the least when I say that while I was among these Parisian
psychologists I got to know colleagues who were brilliantly gifted. They had
simply reached the limit of the framework in which a psychologist cultivating
his plot of partitioned psychology can think. Regarding the future of our
science I am still optimistic, not because a third of a century has passed
since the above-mentioned incident. Time may not change anything. The same
goes for space. Thirty years after that Paris affair I presented a paper in
Moscow. The paper was about the same thing: how Vygotsky’s theory, in particular his idea of
the equivalence between tools and signs, contributes to the creation of a
synthesis of psychologiesGL2, and the audience was recruited
from adherents of activity theory. In Paris the psychoanalytic group was
obviously thinking about me this way: since he’s a marxien, he’s also a freudien. And when they formulated for themselves
that I was pushing social psychology to them and, in addition, activity theory,
one of them, but in front of everyone and on behalf of everyone, asked me
point-blank: “Proprement parlant, qu’est-ce que
tu
veux
de nous, Laszlo?” In Moscow, thirty years later, as soon as we moved on from my
paper to comments from the audience, an attractive woman stood up and, with the
consent of the rest of the audience, asked me point-blank: “What, strictly
speaking, do you want from us, Mr. Garai?” Disregarding the stylistic
difference in how I was addressed, the two questions were absolutely
identical. And hence their motivations were as well.
If I am still
optimistic about the future of our science, it is because psychology has been
given not only an opportunity to
get rid of its partitions. It has also been assigned the necessity of carrying out this historical
scientific procedure.
The point is that if,
just as for Hamlet, “The time is out of
joint” for us as well, then I should note that in this case it is not the
Danish prince who is confronted by “cursed spite,” and “to set it right”
psychology must act. Just take the example of international conflicts. They
have traditionally been handled by states, and in order to cope with this task,
while they have resorted from time to time to psychology, they did not need it:
they maintained an army without it, they manifested their
intelligence-gathering interest in the army of a potential or actual adversary
without it, and they knew, basically, how to identify each soldier in terms of
whether they belonged to our or to the enemy’s army. But how does one manage
without psychology where potential wars, or wars that suddenly break out, are
waged by suicide terrorists? By people who do not wear their fascist or
American, Polish, Swedish or Tatar-Mongol uniforms, but dress like us, eat like
us, live in the same cities as us, are students at the same universities, are
viewers of the same television programs, travel in the same subways and the
same planes as us—but for another purpose. How do we figure out that purpose,
how do we foresee its implementation, how do we ensure the survival of our
society without the assistance of psychology? But how can our science begin to
solve this problem without being born? Without being born as a science. A synthetic
science that is synthesized from its components.
Pruzhinin: Professor
Garai,
in connection with the question about the prospects for psychology another that
is very relevant today comes up: about the status of applied psychological
research. You are the founder of economic psychology in Hungary. I have a
question in this regard about the specific nature of your theory in terms of
its difference from decision theory. Applied topics in psychology assume
certain general theoretical foundations. So what do you think is the general
theoretical conceptual foundation today of psychology, of modern psychology?
What performs the integrative functions today that were previously performed by
so-called general psychology? Perhaps cultural-historical psychology?
Professor Garai: You are putting a very important
question. As in the past,5 to this day I have no doubt that it
is cultural-historical psychology that put forth a needed integrative idea when
it made a case in favor of equivalence, or at least mutual causality, between tool and
symbol. Tools
are undoubtedly associated with man’s object-based activity. Symbols, meanwhile
(if we advance along the path with Vygotsky from the famous knot in the
handkerchief to language and speech), become historically embedded in
structures, the paradigm of which is the structure of language; which in every
act of communication reproduces this history. Aleksei Alekseevich Leontiev declared that such an act of
communication is nothing other than a variation of acts of activity. Frankly,
his views on this point were shared by nearly all the adherents of activity
theory.
To a certain degree one
can understand this approach. After all, what makes an utterance within
communication similar to objectifying activity is the fact that the
object-product also retains its activity history. But only in a
condensed form.
Subsequent activity initiated by a tool does not reproduce the activity’s
prehistory that engendered this tool: a Paganini does not act at all like a
Stradivarius. When we apply language in our speech, we behave, on the contrary,
precisely this way: we imitate our ancestors who created the language with
their verbal practice. True, while Paganini does not replicate Stradivari’s
activity, later Stradivaris specifically emulated their brilliant predecessor.
In doing so, however, they compressed the emulated activity as much as
possible. Previous searches and delusions are not replicated. We exercise in
various acts of activity and cram information about an object, but when we have
already assimilated what we needed, we no longer insist on the prehistory of
this knowledge. For rational reasons we condense it.
But when the issue
concerns acts of activity or an exchange of symbols of various kinds of
cultural structures, then, conversely, we actively resist condensing, which is
so reasonable in object-based activity. When we interact in the field of
cultural history, we reproduce with nearly eidetic precision all of history, we
ritually replicate it, we
play out the Passions of Christ with his crucifixion, death and the subsequent
mourning and burial of Jesus’s body…
The
treatment of ritual is the highest personification of man’s historicity. I will
stipulate right off that we assign this importance not to reproduction of the
ritual but to the treatment of this cultural legacy, which in addition to
playing out the rituals includes their,
so to speak, establishment, as well as, if that is the outcome, their
rejection. This stipulation makes it possible to identify a highly important
relationship: the treatment of ritual makes manageable the contacts that unite
certain individuals into small or large groups, with certain groups demarcated
from others. It is enough to realize that one variety of the treatment of
ritual is the given of cultural history in which we see the most powerful means
precisely of such social functioning, regarding which L. Wittgenstein, with
good reason, came up with the term “language game.” In this connection it is
interesting to cite a find by Margit Köcski, who has been my coauthor more
than once. She was studying the social-psychological development of children’s
speech, and while observing the development of the children we have in common
she discovered that from the earliest age the children took a liking to
language rituals: if, purely by a chance, a brief dialogue occurred between a
child and some family member, the child insisted endlessly on playing out a
repetition of the model. So I cannot agree with those who maintain that
communication is nothing more than a variant of activity.
On the contrary, if we
assume methodologically that there is mutual causality between tool and symbol,
then
psychology can look for Vygotsky’s dyad in every phenomenon, without exception, of
the world under its purview.
Here is an example of
what I mean. This example is not my find but comes from the anthropologist
Marshall Sahlins. Somewhere he writes about ancient agriculture,
the nature of which necessitated that the father cooperate with the son, but, he notes, it was
not the nature of agriculture that necessitated that precisely the father and son cooperate rather than the mother’s
brother and the sister’s son or Don Quixote and Sancho Panza. So (and this is no longer Sahlins’s conclusion but mine) in the first
necessity the tool aspect is manifested, while in the second necessity it is
the aspect of the symbol. And these two aspects are predefined each time in
their mutual causality in Vygotsky’s dyad.
And thus we have
arrived at the other half of your multipart question: you asked me about the
specific nature of the theory in economic psychology that I developed. Well,
this theory was constructed entirely on Vygotsky’s dyad. The mainstream of economic
psychology is interested exclusively, so to speak, in Sahlins’s first necessity: How do they
cooperate there? No matter who cooperated with whom. To be fair, I must state right off
that in the context of this necessity the mainstream is interested not only
(and even not so much) in the technological aspect of the matter but in the
financial aspect as well. During the 1990s a Nobel Prize was twice awarded to
scientists who, it is true, were not developing economic psychology but economics,
for the fact that they discovered the world of transaction costs. These are the costs by which I
ensure that a potential collaborator, no matter who, cooperates not with just
anybody, but specifically with me. In the world of transaction costs, money is
the mediating factor, as it is in the market itself. So then, my theory in
economic psychology asserts that, in addition to money, social identity can
also be such a mediating factor. While money ensures that the cooperation is not
just with anyone but with me, social identity ensures that the collaborator
will turn out to be not just anyone but precisely potential collaborators of my
choosing.
Figuratively speaking, I’ll put it in terms of the earlier, highly simplified
example: I am counting on cooperating with Peter, since he is also a “German,”
or, accordingly, with Paul, because he is also a “proletarian.” Here social
identity acts like a twin to money. In the matter of mediating cooperation
social identity and, accordingly, money can mutually buy out each other: our
brother the “German”/“proletarian” may agree more eagerly to cooperate with me,
and this way I can save a portion of the transaction costs—conversely, in order
to circumvent the embargo imposed on cooperation with me, it may cost me quite
a lot of extra money.”6
Lektorsky: You apply your original
psychological theory of identity to many different worlds as an explanatory
theory. Today a number of researchers, both internationally and in our country,
maintain that the problem of identity, as it was understood in the past, has
lost meaning, because modern man’s identity is being eroded. Some speak of
multiple identities, while others even say that identity is disappearing
altogether. What do you think in this regard?
Professor Garai: I do not believe the declarations
that the concept of identity per se is obsolete, and here is why. The first
Nobel Prize in economics in our new century was awarded a scientific discovery
according to which the market functions properly (i.e. by selecting the most
profitable of all possible options) only to the extent that the social identity
of the persons operating in the market is clearly designated for one another.
Absent this condition, that is, if the market bears in mind only monetary
relationships (at one pole, a commodity belonging to no matter whom; at the other, money belonging to no matter whom), such a market makes, contrary to
expectation, a counterselection: it provides for the sale only of
the lowest grade of commodity, while the highest grade of commodity drops out
of the market.7
The problem is not that
the concept of identity per se is obsolete but that its interpretation as a property,
and as one that is predefined, is out of date. Earlier we already discussed
what factors prompted me to orient myself more in the direction of
relationships rather than property.
These factors were mostly psychological. Now we can also take into account (I
would even say: we cannot avoid taking
into account) the testimony of economic scholars as well: the trio awarded the
Nobel Prize, of a liberal persuasion, note with satisfaction that the
functioning of the labor market depends relatively little on whether it is a black or a white person who is offering his services; on
the contrary, they are disconcerted by their own observation that the
functioning of the market depends heavily on whether it is a black person or someone
indeterminate who
is applying (e.g. on the phone) for a
job. Here is the difference: whether I am specifically a black or a white
person is a matter of identity as property;
on the other hand, whether I am a black person or someone indeterminate, here
the question concerns identity as relationship. In point of fact, what is
disappearing outright is not identity per se but ready-made, mass-produced
identity as property.
And at that, eroding identity (or multi-identity) is a starting
point for the creative molding of identity as relationship. The less defined a
predetermined identity is, the more it calls for categorization.
In 2003 I published the
book Identity Economics,8 which examines how the macroworld of mass reproduction handles
social categorization for social identity. Two years later I published another
book, The Multiple Identities of József Attila9: A Study in the Psychology of Creativity, which examined the same thing in
the microworld of creativity.
The macroworld of mass reproduction and the microworld of creativity are two worlds that
are absolutely opposite to each other. To deal with both, and within a period
of two years to boot, is probably a matter of either brilliance or cheating. I
myself am convinced, without false modesty or justifying myself, that for such
an accomplishment there is no need either to be a genius or to expose oneself
as a cheater. Back in 1931 Kurt Lewin
formulated his appeal to psychology to emulate physics, which had replaced its
Aristotelian way of thinking, applying one theory to celestial bodies and another to earthly ones, a
third to falling bodies, and a fourth to airborne ones, with the Galilean
method, which brings its worlds to a common denominator of interpretation.
For a very long time
psychology not only did not find but did not even look for this common
denominator, it rather tended to push Lewin’s comment out of its scientific
consciousness. That is why it came to a dead end (sometime between its 1966
Congress in Moscow and its 1976 Congress in Paris) and remained there for quite
a while. Meanwhile, my study of such different worlds led me to the conclusion
that social identity is that searched-for common denominator. Again, such a
find does not require particular genius. It is enough to bear in mind that in
the macroworld of mass reproduction the focus is on the mass
reproduction of tools, while
in the microworld of creativity it is on the creation of symbols.10
So Vygotsky’s dyad is clear.11 Embodying the entire legacy of Rubinstein’s
tetrad: both the object with activity and the aspect of history with the aspect
of society.
Notes
1.
“Istoricheskii
materialism i
problema
lichnosti,”
Voprosy filosofii, 1968,
No. 9, pp. 19-30.
“Eshche odin krizis v psikhologii! Vozmozhnaia prichina shumnogo uspekha idei
L.S. Vygotskogo” (co-author: Margit Köcski), Voprosy filosofii, 1997, No. 4, pp. 86-96.
“Netipichny akademik,” Voprosy filosofii, 2005, No. 1, pp.
67-69.
2. “La regulation
communicative de la relation sociale et le devenir conscient des contenus de mémoire.” In J. Janousek, ed., Experimental Social Psychology: Papers and Reports from the International
Conference on Social Psychology (Institute of Psychology,
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Prague, 1969).
3. Or at least marxisant (gravitating toward Marxism).
4. Cf. Chadwick-Jones,
J. “The Debate Between Michel Plon and Morton Deutsch: Some Related
Comments,” European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 6, Issue 1, pp. 129-137.
5. See “Eshche odin krizis v psikhologii! Vozmozhnaia prichina shumnogo uspekha idei L.S. Vygotskogo” (co-author: Margit Köcski), Voprosy filosofii, 1997, No. 4, pp. 86-96.
6. Economic psychology
has worked out a special calculation for the reciprocal conversion of monetary
costs and social identity (see Garai,
L. “The Price of Excellence.” In Inquiries Into the Nature and Causes of Behavior. Proceedings
of the XXIV Annual Colloquium of the International Association
for Research in Economic Psychology, 1999, pp. 750-759.
7. “Behavioral
Macroeconomic and Macroeconomic Behavior.” Nobel Prize Lecture of George A. Akerlof (December 8, 2001).
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/2001/akerlof-lecture.html.
Another laureate in the same area showed that the impetus that can be observed
nowadays toward second, third and more diplomas is attributable not to a desire
for extra knowledge but to the forced signaling of social identity in the labor
market.
8. Identity Economics: An Alternative
Economic Psychology. Available at
www.staff.u-szeged.hu/~garai/Identity_Economics.htm.
9. Attila József was a great Hungarian poet
(1905-1937). Cf. Garai,
L. “The Case of Attila Jozsef:
A Reply to Gustav Jahoda,”
New Ideas
in Psychology, 1988,
Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 213-217.
10. The just-mentioned
Attila József,
in addition to being a great poet, was also a brilliant theorist of
cultural-historical social studies, and advanced a theory, in particular, that
a creator, by creating a work of literary fiction, at the same time creates a
new symbol and thereby re-creates the integrity of the language that he used.
11. In reality the
formula of Vygotsky’s dyad is more complex than is presented here, since
both of its factors are taken into account by Vygotsky together with, accordingly, their
addendum: the sign together with its
meaning, tool , that ultraperipheral organ of the organism with a
central controlling, nervous apparatus. Thus, the dyad of sign and tool is
supplemented by Vygotsky’s own dyad of meaning and its brain apparatus (see Garai, L. “O znachenii i ego mozgovom apparate,” Kul’turno-istoricheskaia psikhologiia, No. 2, 2010).
GL1. Sic! Not a typographical error!
Towards a social psychology of personality:
Development
and current perspectives of a school of social psychology in Hungary*
In 1970 there was organized in the Institute for Psychology
of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences a team-work with the scientific project of
elaborating a psychological meta-theory that would be equally close to
natural and to historical sciences.
The scientific program of the Department has its antecedents dating back to
the 1960s. That period in Hungary was marked by a stabilization process of the
socialist system combined with radical tendencies towards economic and social
reforms.
Those rapid advances in society gave rise to many practical problems which,
however, presupposed the answers to theoretical questions as well: What had the
social reality of the preceding era been? What was the reformed society to be
like? Does the direction of progress depend on free choice or on necessity
independent of man?
Whether of a pragmatic, empirical, theoretical or axiological character,
the questions were not raised separately nor were they addressed to any
specific area of intellectual life: answers to these unspoken but challenging
questions, whatever their source, were commonly — sometimes publicly — expected
to be provided by the "humanities".
No such body
of integrated knowledge really existed. But
within the individual disciplines, separately reawakening or even reviving in the 1960s, the
necessity for an integration of knowledge was felt in order to cope with the
questions of that period. Moreover, the possibility for an integration of
knowledge existed. As concerns the humanities it emerged in the course of
events which Lukács called the renaissance of Marxism. Through this process,
first of all, a wider circle of readers in Hungary gained access to those
classic works (Marx, 1953 and 1963) which provided a theoretical-methodological
groundwork to transcend the antagonistic approaches of Naturwissenschaft
(sciences of nature) versus Geisteswissenschaft (sciences of the mind) which
had provoked a scientific cleavage. Marx surmounted the problem by taking
production, instead of nature or mind, as his starting point (Lukacs, 1973),
production being just as much determined by spatio-temporal dimensions as
nature, and just as creative as mind.
Had it not
been for such
an integrative principle, the humanities could
not have progressed, despite both the
desire for integration and the need
to solve current
practical problems. Rather,
such attempts would
have remained trapped
within the traditional boundaries of "Naturwissenschaft" or "Geisteswissenschaft", and
would have been
constrained forever to attempts to derive culture
from human nature,
or to trace everyday behavioral patterns back to man's mind.
This would have
perpetuated the split
between "explanatory" and
"descriptive" human sciences.
Thus in the
I960s, when the
need was more
clearly felt in Hungarian society
for the development "in Marxian terms" of various branches of the humanities, including psychology, it became more
and more apparent that this need
was identical with
the one that
urged psychology to make its
findings available for
integration by other
disciplines, while itself
developing the capacity to integrate research results from other
disciplines.
The fact that there was a real need for a Marxian psychology, i. e. for a
psychology capable of integration with the other humanities, is best
demonstrated by the fact that there were representatives of other fields who
attempted to anticipate the development of such a psychology as long as none
had yet been elaborated (cf. e.g. Lukacs, 1963, vol. 2, Chapter 11).
However, the elaboration of a Marxian psychology could have of fered psychology much more than the mere
possibility of integration with the rest of the humanities. Psychology is in a
unique position, for the "bisecting line" of the humanities cuts
across psychology and divides it into a 'scientific" (`Naturwissenschaft") and a "humanistic"
("Geisteswissenschaft")
part, i.e. an "explanatory"
and a "descriptive"
psychology, the integration of which is
in itself a longstanding problem. Now, Marx's anthropological approach, which surpasses the two
antagonistic approaches by stressing
the principle of production, is especially promising in view of curing psychology's innate
schizophrenia.
To achieve integration, however, it will not suffice merely to add Marxian
theses on the one hand, and psychological facts and interpretations on the
other. In order to obtain a real degree of integration, the non-psychological,
production-centered conceptual framework must be translated into terms
appropriate for use in psychology. These new conceptual tools can then be used
to interpret the available data and facts as well as to orientate further
research.
Such was precisely the research strategy of the Vygotsky school which had its renaissance in the 1960s.
It exercised a direct influence on the early phase of the work at the
Department of Personality Psychology. Vygotsky's basic argument was that man in his activity utilizes as psychic tools
signs that are psychic products of
his previous activity. These signs constitute a special i.e. psychic category of "means of production" i.e. they
are means which have been derived
as a product of production. Later, especially
during the decade of the school's renaissance, Vygotsky's colleagues (Leontiev, Galperin, Luriya,
Elkonin and others) extended their investigations from the sector of human
activity producing and using psychic signs to the whole of activity oriented to real objects and made the general
proposition that the phylogenesis and
the ontogenesis of psychism take place in object-oriented activity
(Leontiev,1969).
However, the theory that was built around this general thesis contained a contradiction concerning the
genesis of motivation. A motive was
understood as an originally inner need objectified in some outer object, while the term object-oriented activity
referred to a life process directed
towards such a motivating object. But where
then does a motive itself take its origin? It cannot be from activity itself since the latter,
according to the theory, would already
presuppose the existence of some motive. Hence if it is correct to argue that
activity is organized by an originally inner need objectified as a motive, then there must be aÌ least one
psychic factor which cannot originate in object-oriented activity.
It is this theoretical contradiction which the hypothesis of the specifically human fundamental need has
been posited to resolvc, adopting
the Marxian strategy of drawing on a production-centered conceptual framework
(Garai, 1962a, b, c; 1966a, b; 1%9b;
Eros and Garai, 1974). According to this hypothesis, a need, on either the human or the subhuman level, does not have
to become objectified as motive in
order to be able to organize an activity, since a need through the process of
phylogenesis develops from the beginning as a need for object-oriented
activity, evolving from those
purely inner biological tendencies already
given at the level of cells and directed towards the functions of nutrition, reproduction, the
regeneration of injured living structurc and
the isolation of intruding alien materials. This means that a need manifests itself as drive,
inhibition, reward or punishment in various
phases of such an object-oriented activity that has its structure determined
according to the prevalent features of the given stage of phylogenesis (Garai, 1968, 1969b, pp. 119-134, and 160-168; Garai and Köcski,1975).
Thus, the human character of a fundamental need is determined by the structure of activity specific to
the human level of phylogenesis.
The activity characteristic of the human species is work activity. The hypothesis of the specifically human
fundamental need suggests that man, as a result of his phylogenetic development
and an ontogenetic process of maturation, possesses a need for some kind of activity, composed on
the model of the structure of work
activity, that is, consisting of the following phases: (1) appropriation:
turning products of others" past activities into means for the individual's future activity;
(2) setting a new goal, which is an
elaboration of tensions that appear between the already appropriated objects;
(3) attaining the goal by producing some new
object not existing previously; (4) alienation: a process that presents the product of the individual
as a means to be used by others in
their future activities (Garai, 1969b, pp. 178-200).
This hypothesis in itself presented a possibility of synthetizing various, sometimes contradictory
psychological theories of motivation. For example, Lewin states that when a
person has made a decision, the
resulting intention will become a quasi-need for him and will maintain an inner tension until the decision has been
carried out, regardless of whether it is kept in the focus of consciousness or
not. Freud, on the other hand, speaks of "forgetting" certain intentions, i.e. purposefully
expunging them from consciousness. Now, the hypothesis of the specifically
human fundamental need explains that intentional actions have their speciaI ways of fitting into man's activity
structure, and the fact of whether
this adaptation happens to take place in a goal-fulfilling phase, or, on the contrary, in an
alienating phase will determine whether
the intention works according to Lewin's or to Freud's scheme. The hypothesis characterizes certain (mental) tactics, which were in part discovered
empirically by social-psychological investigationsof
cognitive dissonance and in part by clinical
psychoanalytical study of defense mechanisms, as fictitious manifestations of the specifically human
need.
However, at this point of the development of the theory it became clear that such a level of
abstraction overlooked a very important aspect of motivation.
In our approach, the existence of a specifically human need was taken for granted as an anthropological
fact, one which motivates every
normal individual to perform the successive phases of activity discussed above, with no more variation
than permitted by the given stage
of ontogenesis (Garai,1969b, pp.134-142). However, it is often found that there is a considerable variation in the
way in which certain social expectations,
concerning one phase or another, are
met by different individuals. Some may feel that the activity which conforms to expectations is
incited by their own inner motivation,
whereas others regard the same activity as the result of some external pressure. There are some whose inner attitude
corresponds to external expectations, yet the attitude does not become a motive of b_ehaviour; finally, some do not
at all, either
in thought or in action,
fulfill the given
expectations.
Variation is even greater when the activities in question are not regulated by any explicit or implicit
social expectations. Some people make scientific discoveries or produce
technical inventions, others create
works of art or lead a life that elevates them to acts of great moral value. They may attract
followers who develop the discovery
into a scientific school, the invention into an industrial enterprise, the work of art into
culture, and the individual moraI deed
into a mass movement. Some will still be found who retain their passive attitude towards
historical processes until a social expectation becomes clearly formulated.
How is this variation to be explained? lt could seem natural to resort to a
typological analysis to answer this question addressed to personality
psychology. However, the approach which was adopted for the research program of
the Department of Personality Psychology was essentially different. The
methodological principle which led to rejecting the typological approach was
found in Lewin (1935, pp. 41-90), who maintains that the modern, Galilean mode
of thinking requires psychology to refrain from sorting the objects studied
into different classes in which they would fall under different laws. The
typological approach in psychology is a remnant of this abnegated “Aristotelian”
way of thinking, which, in order to cover phenomena that are beyond the reach
of the general psychological laws, designs other, independent laws instead of
homogenizing “with respect to the validity of law” the world psychology
investigates.
An important point to add to Lewin's concept of homogenization was
elaborated within the framework of the specifically human need hypothesis: individual motives and
social determinants were not
opposed to each other as biological needs to be described by natural laws, and cultural norms to be
described by laws of the mind. One
pole, the need of the individual, was represented as directed towards an activity modeled after the structure of
work, while the other pole, the
social determinant, was shown as a tension
in the historical process of production (Garai, 1969b, pp. 81-111).
Work and production are two aspects, one individual and
one social, of the same
process. The same
homogenization principle was
also applied to the above-mentioned problem of variation, and resulted in the interpretation that the different responses of different individuals to the
tensions arising in the historical process of production depended on the
positions occupied in the total
social structure of the relations of production.
The specifically human need hypothesis made just such a statement of this
interconnection. The task of a Marxian psychology to render the production-centered conceptual framework adaptable was not carried further by means of this
approach than to where the
fundamental theoretical work of the Vygotsky school extended. Its work was in fact limited to the
aspect of production as work activity and left the problems of production as a
relation of property unexplored.
While expounding the specifically human need
hypothesis, the related contiadiction of the theory can only be
mentioned (cf. Garai b,1969).
Since the question here concerned the mediation
between social determinants and
individual motives, a Marxian and therefore
production-centered psychological investigation of human motivation could not be carried further
unless the verbally stated interconnection
was also made conceptually adaptable for psychological
purposes.
The first period of work was by necessity characterized
by a broad range of extensive
inquiry. This also followed from the deliberate way of organizing the team so as to include representatives of
dif ferent areas of psychology,
namely theoretical psychology (Garai, 1969a),
developmentaly psychology (Járó, 1973, 1975a, b, c, d; Járó et al.,1975), social psychology (Garai,1969b), psychology
of art (ErBs,1972,1973), and
neuro-psychology (Keleti,1970; Köcski, 1969a,
1969b, 1971, 1972, 1974). The advantage of this composition was that the
members of the team could combine their diverse stocks of knowledge in the study of the complex problematic of personality.
The orientation of the team started with seminars
on readings of the literature in
personality psychology in the strict sense. The typological approach being
excluded from the
team's range of interest for
reasons presented above, attention was concentrated on dynamic theories of personality. The
major part of Lewin's field theory
and the following two of Freud's propositions were integrated into the team's
principles of approach: (1) All the psychic
and somatic manifestations of the individual should be taken as symbols and decoded with reference to
the positions occupied in a system
of relationships (which in Freud is the Oedipal triangle; see Garai and Köcski,1978, Köcski and
Garai,1978); (2) Development is not
something that merely happens to the individual, but a process to which the
personality allocates much of its motivational
energies either in an attempt to promote or to hinder that process in order to break up ot preserve the actual relationship structures.
The next phase
in elaborating fundamentals was dominated by efforts to select a certain body
of material from
social psychology that
could be integrated into personality psychology. As a consequence of Garai's study
visit to France
in 1971 and
his participation in the general
meeting and conference of the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology in 1972, the
Department hecame acquainted with the theoretical and methodological critique which Western European social psychologists were
applying to the
American tradition of the discipline, as well as to their
own pre-1968 work.
This critique had
a decisive influence on the views
of the Department (cf. Garai, 1972c),
due to a large extent
to the eontrast with the background against which it was perceived, namely that of a general
lack of critique characteristic of social
psychology in Hungary
at that time.
It was especially at the first
Hungarian Social Psychological Conference in 1972
that this contrast was quite clearly
noticed by the
Department, thus setting
the tone of members" contributions to the conference where their "harsh" opinions inevitably roused
general objection and
resulted in their
complete isolation.
Besides surveying different branches of psychology, the Department examined
other approaches whicjZ could be integrated into a theory of personality psychology. Though this study was meant
to concentrate the multifarious
research orientations, it in fact extended the field of inquiry to areas
outside psychology.
Work was directed first to embrace the approach of
philosophical anthropology and other philosophical domains that had
implications for the study of personality. An important point to add to the views
of the Department was found in Sève's conception (1969) suggesting that the
activity of personality depends on extrinsic motivation that can only be
understood by virtue of those spatial and mainly temporal structures that are
determined by the existing relationships of production. (For a critical
analysis of Sève's book, see Erœs,1972). Studying Marx's Grundrisse and
expounding its psychological implications resulted in the construction of a
production-centered psychology of personality which was initially elaborated in
economic-philosophical categories only. An examination of Kant's thoughts in
the Critique of practical reason led to an investigation of the 1ogical
patterns that organize the cognitions rationalizing a person's decisions. This
work eventually led to awareness of the categorization paradox (Garai, 1976b).
In the search for theoretical synthesis, the
Department examined the possibilities offered by mathematical systems theory.
Attention was focused on the structure that characterizes the systems studied
by this theory as opposed to that of cybernetic systems. These mathematical
systems turned out to have special formal mechanisms which, unlike cybernetic feedback and information, provide for development and not for
equilibrium in systems
(Garai, 1971, 1973a).
These mathematical systems
turned out to have special
formal mechanisms which,
unlike cyberneúc feedback and information, provide
for development and
not for equilibrium in systems (Garai,
1971, 1973a). In their search
for synthesis, the
Department members also
turned to philosophy of science and
examined the way
in which other
sciences, especially physics
and biology, had
found the means
to encourage processes of integration during
periods of crisis.
Further, concrete investigations were made to find out
to what extent
the different psychological theories, which are
the most concerned with personality can
be fitted together into one logical
system. This work
in particular and,
in general the
entire activity of the Department, was favourably influenced by a Marxian
group of French
psychologists (Pécheux, Plon,
Poitou and others)
whose critique of social psychology is based on Lacan's version
of psychoanalysis.
These "meta-scientific"
studies also had a direct bearing on one important
area of the problematic which the Department was going to explore. It was postulated that in the objective process of
the development of productive
forces there emerge certain tasks which are
in the spirit of the time with no one in particular being responsible for
having formulated them; and these tasks, mediated by the specifically human fundamental need, have a motivating impact
on persons occupying certain
positions in the social structure. The hypothesis
was put forward, together with an attempt to
demonstrate it, in a paper analyzing Janos Bolyai's discovery of non-Euclidean geometry (Garai,1970).
This paper, presented at the 13th
International Congress on the History of Science, argued for the hypothesis by analyzing a
remarkable fact: the two thousand year
old geometrical problem had been solved at the beginning of the l9th century simultaneously but
independently by the Hungarian
mathematician J. Bolyai and the Russian mathematician Lobatchevski.
Experimental work, started in 1971, was based on the
theoretical-methodological team work presented above. At that time the underlying assumptions of the
production-centered psychology of personality
were as follows:
1) Development of personality takes place in the course
of a process during which the person retains or changes his place in a social structure. Retaining or changing place
does not happen gradually but
passes through conflicts arising from time to time, obliging the person to make clear-cut decisions for
either conservation or change.
2) Development of personality is an integral part of the
process of historical progress
where the social structure mentioned in paragraph
(1) is either preserved or subjected to change. The conservation or change of the
social structure is not gradual: it occurs
in social crises in which clear-cut decisions are made for the
conservation or revolutionary change of the structure.
3) Preservation or change of the individual's place
within the social structure is not
a mere result of external social intervention to move or maintain the individual. A person is motivated to change or
retain his place by the specifically human fundamental need which is essentially a need for development. But
this development itself is mediated
by the series of acts of retaining or changing place within the social structure.
4) Conservation or change of the structure of society is
not an outcome of what certain groups of individuals happen to want: it occurs
by historical necessity, independent of any person's will. It is a necessity of economic nature which
depends on the production of the
means of production. In certain historical periods it is served by the conservation of the structure of the
relations of production whereas in
other periods by a radical change in those relations.
5) The process of development of personality and that of
social progress are interconnected.
When the individual decides whether he
is to.preserve or to change his place in the social structure, this is at the same time a contribution to
deciding whether the social structure should change or remain the same. Also,
when historical events give rise to
either stability or changes in the social structure, the positions that may be taken in it will stabilize or change
accordingly. 6) The decision which
in a given period a person makes concerning
the question, arising in an historical context, of preserving or changing the social structure, is
determined by that person's position in the social structure in question i.e.
his class position.
The basic assumption for the experiments was that the selfdevelopment of
the personality through erises and decisions can begrasped by analyzing
behavior in conflict situations of decision.
Analysis was centred
on two aspects
of decision-making behavior: (1) What is it that
the decision evokes
or inhibits the
memory of from
among whatever has
been stored and
arranged into structures in memory throughout life? (2) What
kind of a permanent mark
does the decision produce, which may
then prove decisive for the rest
of the person's life?
As regards the first of these questions, experiments were conducted by
Garai (1969a) with undergraduate students in Moscow. A replication of the experiment witha control group of
Budapest undergraduates, using
Hungarian versions of the experimental devices,
produced evidence to support the original results, showing that in situations of decision, life
history memories (personal memory)
can act as determinants even without the person becoming aware of them. Moreover,
only those memories become conscious that play a part in organizing the social
relationships of the person through
the decision.
In another experiment, high school pupils were given a passage of surrealist prose, that is the kind of
literature in which the sentences
are not connected to one another to form a story or a logical train of thought but seem to follow loosely, "making no sense", but still somehow holding together. The different
groups were asked to retell the
passage after havmg made various evaluative
decisions concerning the téxt. These experiments reinforced the presupposition
that recalling hidden structures of a text
was markedly affected by the kind of value dimension — beautiful/ugly,
tragic/idyllic, comic/elegiac or sublime/base — along which the decision was
made.
For the second aspect of decision-making behavior, mentioned above, the
presupposition was that
the specifically human
fundamental need becomes
a motive by virtue of a decision alone. That is,
choice is not
determined by previously existing preferences and
aversions but, on the contrary, the direction of the choice
determin= ed by the fundamental need will shape
the preferences and
aversions which then
consistently determine further
activities. Since such
a hypothesis finds
ample support in the rich
fund of empirical evidence gathered through
experiments in the
theory of cognitive dissonance, the Department did not look
for renewed experimental proof of the
existence of such
an inverse relationship. Instead, the attempt
was made to specify whether
the relationship itself
could be considered as a specifically human characteristic and
to what extent
it was justified to suppose that
the relationship was
present throughout phylogenesis but at the
human level appeared with
essentially different qualitative features.
In order to settle this question, the members of the Department designed an experiment. It was expected
that by observing the behavior of
animals in a maze with one single crossing point, they could see if the first (random) choice at the crossing
determined later preferences of
direction or not. However, after the preparatory
experiments to check various conditions of reinforcement, the work had to be
suspended due to lack of suitable equipment.
After a relatively long time an experimental methodology using a modification of the game "Monopoly" was finally set
forth as a tool of an essentially
production-centered psychological approach to
the problem of decision. The game itself was unknown to the subjects,
high school pupils, and the only modification was the insertion in the
instructions, comprising the smallest possible number of formal rules, of one saying that among the four subjects
playing at one time the leader
"plays as he likes while the rest should all play accordingly and consistently". The instructions
identified the leader according to
a criterion dependent on the progress of the
game, and it characterized a player for a period of several steps. (The designation "leader" was not used). The steps in the first part of the game involve certain decisions
simulating economic activities purchasing
sites, building houses, etc. In the experiment, according to the instructions,
the "leader" had the privilege of deciding what he was going to buy and on what terms. His power was limited only by the instruction to be "consistent", while the rest of the players" power depended on how
they interpreted the deliberately
vague instruction to play "according
to what the leader does". All
subjects had to give reasons for each of their decisions.
The experiment was designed to model the rationalization of decisions and
to use the model in exploring to what extent it depends on the position of who decides, and on the
actual phase of the game, whether
the rationalization concerns this position and phase only or is claimed to cover all positions and
the whole of the game. After testing
in 1973, the method was ready for application.
By 1973, the Department of Personality Psychology had completed the process of formulating its
theoretical assumptions and methodological
ideas. Paradoxically, this resulted in a state of crisis.
Garai's visit to France in 1973 had a catalytic effect in recognizing the
crisis itself. The visit had been planned to be a follow-up of the one two years earlier. At that time,
in 1971, the associates of the Laboratory
of Social Psychology of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes had taken much interest in the theoretical assumptions
of the Hungarian team, and a
suggestion had been made to test them in
comparative studies to be undertaken by the two scientifc institutions
embedded in different social structures. ln 1973, however, when the experimental methodology based on "Monopoly" was proposed as a
research tool, the associates of the Frenech
Laboratory qualified the idea as a "typical
manoeuvre of bourgeois ideology"
and this was by no means only the opinion of Marxians.
The objection proved justifiable on the basis of the argument that follows. The totality-oriented
assumptions of the theory are related
to the question of whether a kind of social structure should survive or not, whereas the experimental
method, by the very requirement of repeatability of the experiment, implies an
a priori decision in favour of the
survival of this structure (cf. Adorno et al,
1976) and it represents this pre-experimental, extra-scientific, ideological procedure as if it had
become scientifcally verified by the
experiment.
The Department had to face a dilemma: (1) Either one could go on with the further elaboration of a
production-centered psychology
which originally had been developed in order to answer the questions raised by the social praxis of the sixties. Such
a psychological theory, however,
cannot apply the traditional procedures of scientific verification but is,
instead, obliged to find the justification
of its approach in the social praxis of the seventies; (2) Or, one could return to purely psychological theories,
geared to traditional procedures of
verification.
During his stay in France, Garai was asked to prepare a contribution to a
special issue of a UNESCO journal on the crises in psychology and psychiatry. In this article (Garai, 1973b), he
attempted to delimit the areas of competence of pure psychology and psychotechnics (a field detached from
political practice and ideological
theory). It was found that, while psychology and psychotechnics are capable of dealing with the development of
the various abilities and even with
developing them, these disciplines are
not competent in questions of needs.
In the light of this conclusion, the Department was faced by the alternative of either carrying on with
the production-centered study of
needs, thus giving up all expectations of psychological verification, or having
recourse to purely psychological procedures, thus abandoning any illusion of apprehending the phenomena of needs and motivation.
In order to understand this grave situation better, it should be mentioned that the very reason for setting
up the Department at the Institute
of Psychology had been a desire to investigate the needs of personality, that is, human motivation.
In the first part of the crisis period, the activities at the Department
bifurcated. One group investigated the possibilities of nonexperimental methods
(questionnaires, sociometry) of pure and applied psychology. Another group
examined ways of coneeptualizing in pure psychology in order to see which of
the phenomena tackled in the period
prior to the crisis (conflict, decision, rationalization, personal memory,
etc.) could be deseribed by these means.
This period of work was characterized by mutual hostility and repeated exchange of derogatory
opinions. Indeed, what happened at
that time was that the points of identity and of difference in opinion which
had always existed among the members of the
Department became sharpened by the crisis and, losing all nuances were elaborated into downright,
categorical identities or categorical
differences. When, in search of new possibilities of conceptualization, the
members eventually considered the uses to which
the concept of social categorization might be put, this concept turned out to
be suitable first, in a purely psychological
non-production-centered approach for deseribing other crisis situations analogous to that within the
Department. Following this discovery,
"social categorization" became the central term of conceptualization.
Naturally, the concept underwent some modification of meaning in comparison to the way it has been used,
following Tajfel, in the social
psychological literature (cf. Garai, 1976). The most important difference was
that the Department's works also contained
reference to the type of social categorization which does not presuppose the conscious activity of the
self since, on the contrary, it is
even a precondition for the development of the consciously acting self
(Köcski,1976). Consequently, social categorization is also recognizable at the
sub-human level, mainly in the way certain individuals of a species occupy a
part of the living space as their owñ territory and keep others of the same
species away. It is considered to be a higher-order manifestation of social
categorization when, within the category thus established, a structure develops
in the assemblage in which a given position, e.g. that of flock leader, is
steadily occupied by one individual to the exclusion of all others.
In both cases categorization is mediated by some kind of signalization.
Along with a category forming within the population, or a narrow category
within the broader one, there appears a set of signals (motor, vocal, postural,
secretory, vaso-motor, pigmentary or still others) which signifies that the
individual belongs to the category in question (cf. Köcski and Garai,1975).
Complementing the methods of developmental psychology (Járó,1975a), in which she had displayed
such great expertise, Járó (1973),
with the assistance of Veres, elaborated complex methods, combining various social psychological
techniques, for use in field investigations
related to the development of social abilities on thc one hand, and to the social factors of psychic development on
the other. These methods seemed
suitable for an initial approachnot production-centred, but purely
psychological to the type of phenomena
that had been in the foreground of the Department's interest in the earlier period.
It was in an atmosphere of prolonged crisis that the preparations for the European Conference on Social
Psychology in 1974 at Visegrád were
made. Prior to the Conference, the Department had discussed Garai's and Erös' papers. As a contribution to the
themc "The social psychology
of social change" which he had proposed
placing on the agenda, Garai made an attempt to present thc production-centered theory under the
tital "Is Social changc motivated?" (Garai, 1974). The
subject chosen by Erós was a characteristic
expression of the fundamental problem of thc
Department, an interior problem, but one which all humanistic studies starting in the sixties and
continuing in the seventieshad to face: what are critical qúestions about
society destined to become, once
they are integrated in social research based on thc methodological groundwork of "abstract
empiricism" and "middle range theory". (See Erös, 1974, who
illustrates this point in an analysis
of The authoritarian personality).
According to one of the assumptions of the production-centered theory of personality (see above),
social formations make progress through
crises, in the course of which person·ality also develops.
At the lowest ebb of its crisis, the Department of Personality Psychology might have realized (which it
did not, however, since this kind
of realization is apt to take place only retrospectively) that it had made some progress in a purely
psychological conceptualization social categorization and categorizational
signification and in elaborating a purely psychological method, combining
developmental and social psychological methods.
The crisis had not come to an end, however, as became explicit during the periodic thematic discussions
held in the Department: none of the
members wished to give up motivation research, nor to put up with the professional-ideological illusions which a
purely psychological research on
motivations would have imposed upon them.
The production-centered theory of personality considered the motivated development of personality in
its relation to crisis and revolutionary
transformations of social totality. At the same timc, the Department involved in a crisis of its own microsocial
formation, undertook its transformation in a way which resulted in development. While running the field
investigations which had been launched
at that time (see below), the Department members were also confronted by microsocial forms in which as a rule
they found that, if their
accumulating crisis failed to erupt, development of the personality might stagnate or that an evolving but prolonged crisis might lead to self-destruction
and ultimately to suicide, while the
resolution of the crisis could bring about the development of the personality. It was thus with
reference to microsocial forms that
a hypothesis was set forth suggesting that the realization of these possibilities did not depend on
what typological characteristics
mediate as "inner
conditions" the external effect of the
"social environment" in a given person. The earlier conception was that the mediating positiòn was that
"held by the person in the global
social structure of the relations of production", in particular, with
respect to belonging to the class of the propertied or the propertyless. It was vital for the prospects of a productioncentered
study of personality that microsocial forms and the processes that take place
within them should be deseribable by the paradigm
of relations of property.
The model, whose possible application to microsocial relationships is being
examined, shows the following relationship, revealed by Marx's production-centered philosophy of history historical materialism: possession of certain means
of production ensures certain positions in the global social structure,
positions permitting ruling this structure
by political and ideological means; the aim of
such a rule is essentially to maintain the very structure in which precisely the possession of the means of
production is what reinforces the dominant position. This is a paradoxical
formation, whose principle of
organization is determined by those who occupy
dominant positions and who in turn are determined to occupy dominant positions by the principle of
organization itself. An
investigation into the question of whether such paradoxical formations are to be found in
microsocial relationshisp as well leads
at first to the result that there are only paradoxical formations since this
principle of organization proves in a first analysis to be that which serves to perform social categorizations which,
then, is characterized by the
categorization paradox (Garai, 1976b; 1977a;
Erœs and Garai, 1978). This is so because the subject who performs the categorization belongs to
the object he categorizes, and at
the same time is only detached from it as a result of this categorization (as "we" or "I").
After closer investigation, it turned out
that within all
formations (groups, roles)
which in social
psychology have traditionally been regarded as possessing their
given principles of organization, independently of the persons
composing them, a dominant position exists which in fact determines the principles of organization. Thus,
for example; the
principle of organization of a role
relationship like that
between doctor and
patient is determined from the position of the doctor:
it is always here that
is decided what
the criteria are
for being doctor
or patient (Garai,
1975).
The perspectives of the motivated development of the personality are mediated by the position a person
occupies in the structure analyzed
by the paradigm of property relations during the given historical phase (consolidated, pre-crisis, in crisis, or
consolidating after crisis) of the
microsoeial formation (Járó, 1975a; Járó and
Veres, 1976a and 1976b).
The possibilities offered by å paradigmatic approach to the relations of
property resolved the dilemma of a "production-centered,
approach" vs.
"concrete research" and
also the crisis
that stemmed from
it.
Thus came to an end the period in the work of the Department of Personality Psychology during which its
principal task had been to promote
the assimilation of the non (or ñot mainly) psychological set of production-centered concepts into
psychology. This effort had
specifically concerned the problem areas not tackled by the Vygotsky school.
Within the framework of the Department, Járó, Keleti, Köcski and Veres have mainly been engaged in
empirieal case investigations. They
have made it possible to scrutinize systematically, and trace back to actual psychological phenomena,
the abstract statements of the
produetion-centered psychology of personality by making use, on the one hand, of the new features and
conceptual tools of the theory
(such as social categorization, the paradigm of property relations, self-qualifying paradoxes) and, on the other, by
applying the methodological results
and the experience gained in earlier empirical research, mostly in schools
(Járó and Veres, 1976a). As a matter
of fact, the goal set for empirical research had been, even previously, more comprehensive than simply planning and elaborating suitable
technical-methodological devices. In order that the theory concentrating on the laws of
development could ultimately apply
to any person and under the circumstances of any social formation, empirical research set as a goal to
delineate the area of validity and
to specify the need for supplementary conceptualization with respect to the
phenomena outside that area.
The investigations made by this group are connected by a set of hypotheses concerning the concrete
social and ìndividual criteria of the
development of personality. Each of them focuses on different aspects and periods of development and
reflects upon the generally formulated
question: What are the conditions and events that permit us to state that a
person develops?
The members of the group made a creative attempt to answer the question by a joint application of the
principles of production-centered psychology so that they could refer to
concrete individuals chosen as
subjects. The starting point for their analysis was that according to the hypothesis of the specifically human
fundamental need, the motivation
for development the need for setting a goal
is held to be valid for every individual under certain social
conditions, this motivation being a supraindividual and extrapsychic factor. It
was also postulated that the conditions of the force of the motivation can be described with the
help of the property relations paradigm.
Within the various social formations, one of these objective conditions is the
position from which the goal of the common activity can be determined, and the
other is the nature of the historical
period, which determines whether the goal is set from the dominant position (stabilization) or
whether there is a chance to determine
the goals for the forces of the new order, formerly in a position of dependence (revolution).
The theoretical conclusion reached at this point by the empirical research group was that personality
development is not a general human
process, one of anthropological validity but is attained exclusively by those holding the positions which, at the time
of the investigation, bear the
historically mature tendencies of development. From this it follows that the
objective factors making the development
of the personality possible can be shown by analyzing the historical movement of the social formation providing the framework
of development, and the positions held within it.
The social categorization hypothesis is concerned with the subjective
conditions of the development of personality. This hypothesis is not only an attempt to answer the philosophical question of how it is possible for man
to experience as his own subjective free will what in fact is objectively, i.e.
economically, necessary. At the
same time it offers a theoretical possibility to investigate psychologically
how a person in his concrete historicalsocial situation makes his decision
concerning the alternatives of development
emerging before him.
The hypothesis also provides the basis for a description of the semiotic devices and processes through
which the person carries out his
decision with reference to himself and to his environment. Decisions with
respect to categorization may either stabilize the social system or provoke a crisis within it
according to the concrete historical
situation and the position occupied in the system of relationships.
The above ideas have been developed by Járó, thus summarizing the principles of a production-centered
psychology in a unified model of
development (Járó, 1975a). The central concept of the model is the episode of self-definition, which can either take
in the historical moment in which
the alternative of development appears or
the structure of the social system of relationships (the dominant, mediating, dependent; and marginal
positions). The episode of self
definition is a historically and postionally structured situation of ehoice which will serve as a frame of
reference for interpreting decisions
about categorization (Járó and Veres, 1976a).
The production-centered model of ontogenesis necessarily had to face the criteria and range also of
phenomena of "nondevelopment" while describing the periods of
development and systems of
relationships in the social forms serving as frames for ontogenesis dependence relations in stable periods and of the inner mechanism of personality
(rationalization) (Járó, 1975a; Járó
and Veres, 1976b).
The various empirical case studies under
way in the
Department permit analysis of different aspects
of social categorization among the social
formations actually canalizing development, thus bringing different stages of ontogenesis under
investigation. The following themes are addressed:
1) Emergence of categorial signalization in the early
phase of ontogenesis, in the course of the differentiation of "I" and
"others" (Köcski, 1976,
1977; Garai and Köcski, 1976, I978; Köcski and
Garai,1978).
2) Positional differences in the categorization of
high-school pupils occupying
various positions in the system of relationships within the class (Járó and Veres, 1975; Veres, Járó and Erós, 1975a; Járó and Veres,1976a,1976b;
Veres,1976a).
3) Categorizational mediation of the change of social
stratum in young workers coming to
town from the country. Possibilities for intluencing
the categorization by cultural means (Veres, 1975, 1976,1977a,1977b).
4) Deficient social and generational categorization as a
cause of suicide in the period of
growing up (Keleti,1976a,1976b).
Work on these themes has, of course, attained different levels of conceptualization and of exploration of
facts. Currently, all the investigations conducted by members of this group are
case studies or structurally oriented
field research since earlier attempts at experiments failed and were abandoned.
Empirical work within the production-centered-psychological approach, whether carried out by
recording observations in life situations
as in a diary, or by interviews, questionnaires or unfinished stories, is
always so designed as to isolate the episodes of self-definition from the natural flow of complex events, and
to allow positional and semiotic
analyses by comparing the signs used by
the persons with the objective structure of the situation.
Recent field studies have used a production-centered psychological approach, not only as a device of cognition but
of social praxis as well: our
studies in a high sehool and in a workers" hostel introduced the method of social psychological and personality-psychological "catalysis" aiming at
establishing the groups"
self-reflection.
2. Theoretical-rnethodological research
Part of the work in the Department is done by independent methods of theory construction and
methodological critique of theories,
which is a type of tool that has also appeared in other sciences (physics, biology) at a given stage of their
development.
The aim of this work is to develop a personality psychology independent of
general psychology· (cf. Garai, 1968; 1969b,
pp. 142-164; 1970). The task falls into two phases: (1) integrating the individual psychological (from
psychoanalysis, developmental psychology,
personality dynamics) with the social psychological stock of facts and interpretive materials that refer to
personality; (2)establishing a
synthesis of this independent personality psychology
and general psychology. In both phases Lewin's principle of homogenization (see
above) is instrumental. Work in the
first of these phases is more advanced. The validity of some social psychological theories was tested and a
synthesis of the theory of
cognitive dissonance and that of social categorization has been arrived at (Garai, 1977a: 1977c; 1977d; Erös and
Garai, 1978). As a result of the
examination of the social psychological theory
of conflicts and of the ideological critique directed against it (see the Deutsch/Plon debate in the European
Journal of Social Psychology
(1974), the conclusion was that one of the two parties opposed in a conflict will determine the structural frames
within which the conflict can be "acted out", but the other
party may depending on the historical state of the macro- or the micro-social formation extend the conflict from the
level connected with its object (object-level)
to the level of the structural framework that
determines it (meta-level), positing his owvn principles of organization
in opposition to the principle of organization fixed in the existing structure.
Through the extension of the conflict to two levels, the formation enters a crisis for which only a radical
solution is possible (Garai and
Erœs,1976; Garai, 1977).
In a paper belonging to the second phase of this work, Garai (1978) showed that all attempts to
understand the whole of mental activity
in terms of brain functioning alone lead by necessity to leaving aside those phenomena which have their origin in
social or personality factors (such
as, for example, the meaning of environmental „stimuli”). At the same time, he pointed out that taking these phenomena into consideration leads
to a sort of dualism. As a solution
for this dilemma Garai suggested that the territorial mechanisms of supraindividual organization, rather than brain functioning, be regarded as the prime
meehanism of these phenomena.
These theoretical activities were supported by a methodological critique of various social psychological
and individual psychological
theories. It primarily consisted in criticizing the conceptions of society and
of personality implied by the different theories,
within the framework of the history of ideas and of the critique of ideologies. The first systematic attempt in this
direction was made by Erðs in his
previously mentioned paper presented at the
Visegrád conference (Erős, 1974). In his later studies (1975, 1976a, 1976b, 1977a, 1977b; see also
Garai and Erös, 1976; Erós and
Garai, 1978) he further developed this type of analysis, also making use of the complex historical
material that he had collected during
his stay in the United States (1976).
One crucial theme of the historical and
ideological-critical studies was
the rise of American social psychology and the process in its development by which it ceased to be a „social prophesy” committed to reforms,
and became a sort of "social technology" a technique of mass manipulation (see Erós,1977b; Erós and
Garai, 1978).
Another central question was related to critical
social theory, born in the Europe
of the thirties and oriented towards an empirical social psychology, as seen especially in the case of the
Freudo-Marxists (Reich, Fromm) and the theorists of the Frankfurt Sehool (Adorno, Horkheimer). Two aspects of
critical theory are to be noted
here. First, because they are good examples of the consistent critique of the ideological
preconceptions of psyehology as well as of
the social sciences in general (see Adorno et al, I976, especially Adorno's writings), and second, because
they demonstrate that the ideas of
critical theory are themselves not free from certain lapses into ideological functions. This double
aspect is best revealed in Adorno's
and his associates" work, The Authoriturianpersonality, which is in some respects critical
theorists" greatest achievement in social
psychology. Nonetheless, the implicit contradictions of this work have furnished possibilities for
its "positivist reinterpretation"
and in this way for its adaptation to the main trends of American social psychology. (On the set of
coñtradictions in this work and the
process of reinterpretation, see Erœs,1977b).
Some preliminary results of research in progress in the Department of
Personality Psychology were presented in 1977 at the session commemorating the
75th anniversary of the creation of the Institute of Psychology of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences (see Erős,1978;
Garai and Köcski,1978; Járó and Veres,1978).
1. The term, the humanities is traditionally used in Hungary (as well as in
other Central European countries)
to denote the historical and social sciences as opposed to the exact sciences.
2. Of the members of the Department, Garai took part in the work of the
International Organizing Committee of the Conference, and Erős
participated in the preparatory
work.
Marxian
personality psychology
A psychological
meta-theory deriving its assumptions from Marx's materialist philosophy of
history and applied to the historical development and social relations of
personality. Its philosophical basis, historical materialism, unlike other
materialist philosophies, takes neither nature nor the spirit as
its principle. Its starting point is production, which is just as much
defined by spatio-temporal dimensions as is nature. and just as creative as is
mind.
S. Rubinstein
(1959) derived four principles from this philosophy. These principles were to
be applied both to a Marxian activity psychology and to personality psychology.
They are:
(1) the
principle of objectivity — mental phenomena refer to objects in the
space-time of the material world;
(2) the
principle of activity — mental dispositions develop in the activity they
regulate;
(3) the
principle of historicity — mental states bear the marks of their history;
and
(4) the
principle of sociality — mental characteristics are socially determined.
None of these
principles, considered separately, is characteristic of a Marxian psychology.
It is their combination which is specific to the psychological meta-theory
derived from historical materialism. This combination is brought about by a
specific interpretation of each principle:
l. Object is conceived as manufactured by
an activity of man and, reciprocally, is claimed to be an “inorganic body” of
man in producing together that activity (Marx: Economic and philosophical
manuscripts).
2. Activity is pictured as a necessary
everyday cycle of production and reproduction. The cycle is interrupted
.occasionally by moments of free:creation of new values that are introduced to
be reproduced by subsequent necessary everyday cycles of activity.
3. History is conceived as composed of
autonomous human acts restricted by social laws. These social laws are
actualized by the autonomous acts of others.
4. Society is pictured as based upon
relations ot object appropriation and as establishing property relations (Marx:
Grundrisse).
Rubinstein did
not apply his four principles in their entirety. He considered the personality
as an internal mediator of external determinants and as originating from other
external determinants internalized in the past. According to his metaphor the
personality of a man is his “socially determined nature”. This pattern is
highly typical of allegedly Marxian personality psychologies. The personality
psychology outlined by Rubinstein turned out to be an amalgam of a social
cognitivism and a social behaviorism. It deseribes the emergence of a
personality by the notion of socialization and the social functioning of a
personality is described in terms of attitude. For the proximate but not
identical central notion of set in Uznadse's theory, of social
interaction, of communication. etc. None of these points alone is particularly
characteristic of a Marxian approach.
In other cases
the application of some of the above principles in isolation from others
results in a kind of psychoanalytic personality theory. The central problem of
a marxizing personality theory of psychoanalysis is the interdependence of the
personalily structure and the structure of societv. For W. Reich the structure
of a repressive society determines an authoritarian personality structure
through sexual repression in family education. E. Fromm claims that it is the
structure of a competitive socieiy based on private property that by
frustrating a need for secure relationships with others, fixes the personality
on a dependent level as “escaping from freedom”.
A. Jozsef states
that the distortion ot the personalities of both the capitalist and the worker
is determined by the fundamental distortion of the capitalist society. The
society is both the subject and the object of both production (that is in the
process of production reproduces itself) and socialization. On the other hand,
the person as worker is only the subject of production and the object
of the socialization, as opposed to the person as capitalist being only the
subject of socialization and merely the object of the production.
This produces neurotic personalities of either a mere social object with only
technical intercourse and no orgasm or a mere social subject with only impotent
libido.
In contrast to
the above considerations for H. Marcuse it is not the structuce of an actually
given social relation (e.g. between capitalists and workers in a capitalist
society) that more or less distorts the structuce of a personality and still
less does it depend on how repressive or liberal is that social relation. It is
civilization which is opposed as such to Eros and transforms it
by repression into aggression.
A group of
followers of Lacan and Althusser (Bruno et al., 1973) hold that besides nature
the only reality is discourse and its structure. There exists a strict
distinction between the discourse of the subject and that of other while there
are no principles regulating that distinction on the level of a meta-language.
The meta-level relation of proper discourse and the personality distorted by it
both are but an ideology. The ideology is the discourse produced by a
dominating place in the discourse structure but this ideology presents itself
either as corresponding to an objective reality or as a mere subjective belief
system of individual selves that may be opposed by that of others.
It was in
controversy with such theories as well as the humanistic philosophy (Garaudy)
going back to the early Marx that Lucien Sève (1969) advanced his psychological
meta-theory of personality. He rejected the basic thesis of the theories of
Reich, Marcuse and so on sketched above,
That here is an
alienation of the personality distorted by empirically given social relations
from its intrinsic specifically human generic essence (Gattungswesen) given in
advance of any social relations. Nevertheless he argued that there is an
essence of human personality. It is neither intrinsic nor given in advance but
is borne by the historically developed totality of production relation.
Furthermore, it is neither generic nor intimately characteristic of a given
individual but the totality of production relations of is in a special way
addressed to each xxxnt the particularities (i.e. classes) of that totality.
For example. the human essence that characterizes a worker in a capitalist
society as a personality is defined by the relations in which his personal
power is reproduced as a concrete use value producing abstract exchange value
for the capitalist and, at the same time, as an abstract axchange value
producing concrete use value for the worker himself.
L. Garai and his
team (1979) tried to extend the validity of such a production-centered approach
to those aspects of the historical development and social relationship of
personality which are not directly connected with production as such.
For that purpose
they adopted L. Vygotsky's idea (19xxx8) of analysing a mental context
according to a paradigm derived from an economic context. Vygotsky's basic
argument was that man utilizes as psychic tools signs that are psychic products
of his previous activity and as such constitute a special (i. e. mental)
category of means of production brought into being as products of production.
A. Leontiev (1969) set out from a psychology describing man's activity as
oriented to such an object taken both as a means and a product and attempted to
derive from it a personality psychology that describes the agent of that
activity with his characteristic hierarchy of motives.
Garai took
personality psychology as independent of activity psychology which has a
special mental context to be anzalysed according to a paradigm obtained from
another economic context. i. e. that of class relations (Garai 1977). The main
paradigmatic point of class relations is claimed to be the representation of
the common law of different classes by
only one of them. Neither the detention of personality differences nor finding
out general law xxs of the functioning of personalities is supposed to interest
Marxian personality psychology. It investigates how during its development a
personality establishes its differences and similarities according to or in
contrast with a common pattern represented by someone with reference to whom
the personality also has to distinguish or identify itself. At the beginning
the elaboration of nuances of identities and differences of individuals with
regard to a social situation into categorical identities and difierences (see
SOCIAL CATEGORIZATION) is not presented by a series of conscious acts but takes
place by means of an elaboration of physical entities such as sex, height or
color as well as all kinds of body activity into signs. These entities
unconsciously symbolize by the identities and differences of their structures.
the simultaneously elaborated identities and differences of social structures
(Kocski and Garai l97xxxxx). The emergence of the conscious self is then
mediated by the confrontation between the personality's self-definition and
general laws represented by others.
A further point
to be stressed by a Marxian personality psychology is related to the economic
fact that the part of the physical world produced by men as means of production
may be expropriated by a class that becomes, by virtue of its property, the
class representing the common pattern for all the classes. This has
implications for personality development: (1) the above mental elaboration of
physical entities into signs that mediate the unconscious mental elaboration of
the personality's social world is pre-formed by the property relations of that
social world; (2) so is the emergence of the conscious self since it is
mediated by the confrontation of the personality's (unconscious) self
definition with that property-related common pattern. Thus, it is stated that
personality development in a socialization process depends upon the
individual's privileged or under-privileged position with regard to the
property relations interpreted either in a strict economic sense or
paradigmatically. The main paradigmatic point of property relations is that the
property-condition of occupying the position privileged to frame a law or
pattern of socially approved personality is establlshed by that law itself
(Garai 1977). Those in an under-privileged position can ensure their
personality development only by introducing radical changes into their
self-establishing social world.
Personality
development is not conceived by Marxian personality psychology as a joint
effect of biological maturation and a social shaping process which a passive
individual would be submitted to. Instead, it is represented as the result of an individual's activity
organized according to the paradigm of the work activity: the need-motivated
reproduction cycles are interrupted by life crises which may provoke creative
inventions and these become patterns to be reproduced in renewed cycles by the
force of a specifically human need for a need-free activity.
The
production-centered meta-theory of Marxian personality psychology is the same
as that applied in Marxian activity psychology. Hence there is a real
possibility of basing an integrated psychology on this meta-theory instead of reproducing the traditonal
distinction between a “scientrflc” (Naturwissenschaftliche) and a “humanistic”
(geisteswissenschaftliche) psychology.
Althusser, Louis 1969: Freud and Lacan. New left review 55. 4R-65.
Bruno, Pierre et al. 19ő3: La psychologie sociale: une utopie en
crise. la N”ouvelle Critique /2. Ó 2- 7H: /4. 2 7 -2H.
Fromm. Erich 19/3: Marx's conccpt ó(man. New York: F. Ungar.
Carai, Laszló 19Ó Ó: Conflict and the ecnnomical paradigm. llialectic.s and
humanism 2. 4T- 5H. et al. 1974: Towards a social psychology of personatity:
Ilevelopment and current perspectives of a school of social psychology in
Hungany. .Socialscienr.e information 18.1.13 Ó-6/.
Józset. Attila 19 i 2: Hegel. Marx. Freud. Action poétique 49. b8-75.
Köcski. Margit. and CGarai. Lásszló 147H: Les débuts de la catégorisation
scocíiale et les manifesrations verbales. Une étude Iongitudinale. 1angage et
société 4. 3-3⁄.
Leontiew, Alexei: Problems of mental development. Joint Publications
Research Service, Washington, 1969
Marcuse. Herbert 14/2: »rcrsundcivílisaticrn. New York: Handom House.
Reich. Wilhelm 197l0: Thr musspsychology ólJasci.sm. Nc,vw York: Simon and
Schuster.
Rubinetein. Sergei 1959: Principles and ways of mental development [In
Russian]. Moscow: Publisbing House of Soviet Academy of Sciences.
Lucien Seve: Marxisme et la
théorie de la personnalité. Iaris: Editions Sociales.
Vygotsky. Lev, 1962: Thought and languagc.
Cambridge: MtT Press 1978;: Mmd in society. The development óf higher
psgcholoq, ical processes. Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press.
The Principle
of Social Relations and the Principle of Activity**
Discussion of whether external
factors or internal genetic factors determine progress in a person's mental
development runs like a red herring throughout the history of psychology.
In
foreign, especially American, psychology of the '40s and '50s, when behaviorism
reigned, it seemed that the environmentalists had finally carried the day. The
mid-'60s, however, witnessed a revival of nativist ideas, which seeped through
the logical "cracks" in the theory of learning. For example, Miller
counted how many reinforcements would be necessary to shield all possible
correct propositions 2-60 words long from grammatical errors. It was found that
a person would need 103 reinforcements per second throughout his
life to acquire, through training techniques, the competence to speak correctly
in terms of grammar.'
Continuing
in the same vein, Chomsky concluded that a person must acquire competence
"on the basis of the finite and random experience associated with language
to reproduce and understand an infinite number of new propositions" [34. P.
7]. This competence is a language acquisition device that itself is not
acquired, but innate. 2
Chomsky's
ideas spread rapidly, as did the ideas propounded somewhat later by Jensen
[43], who found that the IQs of children were correlated so closely with the
IQs of their parents that 80% of intelligence could be considered hereditary.
Since this correlation is the same for blacks and for whites, the proponents of
these ideas postulated that the 15%-20% difference in favor of whites found
between the IQs of the two populations must be explained by differences in
hereditary factors, not by different living and learning conditions.
The resurgence of nativism has
not been as prominent in the specialized literature of the socialist countries.
Nevertheless, a similar shift in emphasis is evident in the latest revival of
the twofactor theory (see, for example, [18]; see also the critique of this
theory by Luria [19]). This theory counterposes an innate biological factor not
to external influences in general, but only to the external influences of the
"social environment."
In the scientific literature the "social
environment" is interpreted either as a factor mediating the relationship
between a person's internal and external worlds or as a special part of the
external world. When it is seen as a mediating link, the "social environment" serves as a
concrete vehicle of general sociocultural (in particular, speech) experience.
The social environment viewed in this way is often identified with a person's
"microclimate" (for the child this is the narrow circle of close
adults), and serves as a model for the person, who becomes like it through
imitation or other forms of social learning.
According to the postulates of
general psychology, objects stand counterposed to the person. Their
interaction, through which the person learns, can be mediated by another
person, through his messages and instructions. If as a result of successful
learning the messages and instructions of the teacher have been assimilated by
the learner, the teacher can be excluded from the situation.
Child psychologists (W. Pryer,
W. Stern) and linguists concerned with the learning of speech and language (A.
I. Gvozdev [6]) have
pointed out that sentences that cannot be acquired by a child without the
intervention of an adult because their meaning changes in the very act of
"assimilation" are also exceptions.
These are turns of phrase containing what, in the Anglo-Saxon literature on
linguistics, is called a shifter, or in French, a deictique (e.g., a personal pronoun). According to the observations
of these authors, if a child learns these phrases or locutions in same way as
he learns those that are based on the name objects, he will, for a time, apply
the personal pronouns your, etc., to
himself and, correspondingly, the first personal pronouns to other people. Some
authors (A. I. Gvozdev and others) have observed that in addition to personal
pronouns, are other key words that function in the same way: a child for
example, use the expression Take! in
a way that is contrary to its meaning, i.e., meaning give when he asks for an object.
In our opinion, such relations
in a discursive situation are not the
exception, but the rule.
Following French linguists and
psycholinguists [28] (see their psychogenetic interpretation in Bruner [31]),
we us term discourse to refer to a
kind of communication in which the statements
of each of the interlocutors are determined position they occupy in a social
structure, not just by the o about which they are speaking. The primary
function of the symbols used in discourse as such is not labeling objects, but
categorizing people with respect to the particular social situation
correspondingly, categorizing social situations with respect to the particular person.
The concept of discourse
enables us to analyze speech sequences that would be absurd without it (for
example, "This is mine?"-"No, it is mine."). Compare this,
for instance, with meaningless sequences of a nondiscursive nature: "This
is a table?"-"No, this is a table." In the first sequence, in
contrast to the second, the positions
occupied by the interlocutors social structure must be taken into account.
Hence, the other (teaching) person is not eliminated in the process of
learning speech even after it has been
completed since he is the vehicle of that conjugate position that thereafter
must be taken into account.
The concept of "social
environment" is often used in the sense of a unique part of the external
world, as in the terminology of behaviorism. This interpretation3 is
fashionable in the literature and is gaining currency in our countries as
although it suffers from an irreparable defect. To be sure, this defect is
latent because by 'society" the totality of individuals is meant. In such
a conception, a "particular person" (or at least a subjective factor)
and "other people" representing his "objective" social
environment can be distinguished from one another; we can then study how the person
adapts to the social environment or how he manipulates it through social skills
through social learning.
Such questions are common to
all theories of learning regardless of whether it is objects interacting with
an individual subject e as the elements in the environment or whether the
latter are human beings.
However, this latent defect in
interpreting the social environment as part of the external world immediately
becomes patent as IS we begin to regard 'society" not as a totality of
individuals but as a totality of relations among them (Marx). Then, even
applied to the simplest relations (for example, of the type Is power over
B"), the question of whether they are part of the internal or the external
world of the particular person loses its g. If this is not taken into account
and an attempt is made to situate social relations in either the internal world
or the external world, we end up with a logical confusion of the type that ,
for example, from the following statement by Tajfel and co-authors: "Intergroup
behavior is possible only if one first a the aspect of the social environment
that is important icular relation, using any social criterion for demarcatfrom
`them,' the in-group from the out-group" [51. P. 151.
According
to the authors of this statement, social categorization is done by the
"I" of the given person; and since the "I" is .y part of
the group "we," which the above postulate situates in the
environment, i.e., the external world, we find that the "I," being
part of a part of its external environment, is outside itself (see L. Garai
[41]).
Adhering
to the concept "social environment" has hindered the potential
development of contemporary currents in psychology, particularly the theory of
social categorization discussed above (see [29,30,47,49,50,51,52] and,
especially, [48], in which the latest achievements are summarized), which
stresses not individuals, but the relations among
them. These contemporary currents are attempting, whether they realize it or
not, to offer a new approach to the old problem we have outlined above. We have
indicated how nativism emerges from the inability of environmentalism to
explain mental development (in particular, in the child's development of
speech).4
Theories
that define society as a totality of relations can help to rescue psychological
interpretations from the closed circle of "nativism or
environmentalism." These theories go beyond the general logic of opposites
according to which all that is not present a priori in the individual organism
comes from without and all that is not assimilated from the external
environment necessarily is latent within. If a social relation is
part of neither a person's internal nor external world, the mental product that
results from such a relation cannot, in
the strict sense, be attributed either to external factors (and learning)
or to internal, genetic factors (and maturation).
Let us
clarify this with an example. In socialization a child must adapt not to
society in general, but to a specific social structure, let us say, to a
two-child family. But the structure of a two-child family is created by the
fact that the child became the second child in it. His existence and the
concrete events of this existence define the concrete tasks of socialization.
For example, the task of "defending oneself" against the jealousy of
a brother two years older would not arise if the child himself did not provoke
that jealousy (even if only by the fact of his very existence). But to be, for
example, a second child, or to be a child of the same sex as the older sib, is
neither an internal genetic property nor an external stimulus. Since an
attainment in mental development can be determined by the very fact of being,
for instance, a second child of the same sex as the first child in the family,
it cannot be considered as being present from the outset or as being the result
of acquisition.
The
"discovery" of the social relation did not first enable psychology to
go beyond the logic common to nativism and environmentalism. This possibility
also exists in the psychological theory of activity.
Activity,
in the conception of A. N. Leont'ev [11-14] and P. Ya. Gal'perin [2,3], is not
a function of some strictly internal mental or physiological mechanism, but a
process organized by objects in the external environment. On the other hand, an
object is not a source of strictly external, physical or cultural, influences
on the organism: only that aspect of only that factor of the external world
that may be included in the structure of an activity at a particular stage of
phylogeny and ontogeny can function as an object.
Thus,
object-related activity is not the manifestation of a priori internal genetic
properties of the organism or an effect of external influences of the
environment. Nor is it a "dialectic" unity of these two factors.
Leont'ev has written:
. . .The principal
distinction underlying classic Cartesian-Lockean psychology, a distinction
between the external world, the world of extension to which external material
activity belongs, on the one hand, and the world of internal phenomena and
processes of consciousness, on the other, must yield its place to another
distinction: between objective reality and its idealized, transformed forms (verwandelte
Formen), on the one hand, and, on the other, the activity of the
subject, which includes both external and internal processes. But this means that the split of activity into two
parts or aspects, presumed to belong to two completely different spheres, is
eliminated. [14.
Pp. 99-100]
Both possibilities of surmounting
the logic common to both nativism and environmentalism were present in
Vygotsky's theory [1] of the development of thought and language. He related
the origin of thought to the development of object-related activity, but the
origin of language to the development of social relations, demonstrating that
these two genetic roots were independent of one another in phylogeny, but were
mutually dependent on one another in ontogeny (for more details on this, see L.
Garai [40. Pp. 112-42]). The representatives of Vygotsky's school went on
successfully to develop the psychology of object-related activity, and its
relationship to the psychology of social relations was assumed to be
self-evident. 5
Thus, in
developing the general theory of activity, Leont'ev stressed that the activity of a particular person is always part of
a system of social relations and does not exist independently of those social
relations. In society man does not simply find external conditions to which he
must adapt his activity; social relations themselves contain the motives and
the goals of human activity, its means, and its methods. Leont'ev pointed out:
Marx's discovery, a
discovery that was radical for psychological theory, was that consciousness is
not the manifestation of some cosmic capacity of the human brain. . .but the
product of those special, i.e., social, relations into which people enter. . .
Furthermore, the processes generated by those relations posit objects in the
form of subjective images in the human brain, i.e., in the form of
consciousness. [14. P. 31-Emphasis added.]
Leont'ev
ascribed major importance to the circumstance that "a person's
relation" to the objective world
around him is mediated by his relations to people, in particular,
the relations of the child to the world of objects is initially always mediated
by the actions of an adult.
The possibilities of development of
the higher mental functions of a human being are defined by the place, independent
of him, he occupies in the system of social relations. Theoretical postulates
regarding the significance of a person's involvement in social relations are
generally accepted by Soviet psychologists, but these relations themselves have
rarely been the object of specific psychological
studies.
A considerable number of attempts have been made in the last decade to
reconceptualize the social relation as a psychological problem that had to be
resolved once and for all to overcome the barrier posed by the logic common to
nativism and environmentalism. The key concept in these attempts for Soviet
psychology has been the concept of communication.
This concept
was first developed in the sphere of activity, i.e., it was conceptualized as a
variety of object-related activity: "Communication, like all activity, is
objective. The subject or object of the activity of communication is another
person, a partner in joint activity" [15. P. 237].
But we must
regard as somewhat exaggerated Leont'ev's assertion that 'soviet psychologists
are agreed in their conception of communication as a type of activity"
[10. P. 112]. This, in our view, is difficult to bring into accord with, say,
the following statement by B. F. Lomov, quoted in the above-cited article by
Leont'ev [10. P. 107] :
The actual material
life-style of a person, which determines his mental makeup, is not totally
exhausted by his object-related practical activity, which is only one aspect of
the life-style or behavior of a person in the broad sense. Another aspect is
communication as a specific form of interaction of a person with other people.
[16. P. 18]
And further we read:
The concept of
"activity" comprises only one aspect of man's social being:
subject-object relations . . . but is the material life of a person, his being,
completely and wholly defined by the system of subject-object relations?
Evidently not. A person's social being includes not only his relations to the
objective world (the natural world and the world created by mankind) but also
his relation to people with whom he is in direct or mediated contact. . . In
his individual development, a person acquires what mankind has accumulated not
only in the process of activity but also in the process of communication, in
which the system of subject-subject relations is formed, developed, and
expressed. [17. Pp. 125-26Emphasis added.]
Thus, Lomov supports the
position that communication is not a variety of activity, but exists parallel
with it on an equal footing. The argument in this regard is interesting: social
being is not exhausted by the system of subject-object relations, i.e.,
relations to the world of objects, but also includes relations of "this
person" (to people) (persons other than "this person"), i.e.,
subject-subject relations. But is it valid to identify the object with things,
but "this (individual) person" and other (individual)
"people" with the subject? We think not.
Let us look at the definition
given in the [Philosophical
encyclopedia]: "Object-that which stands counterposed to the subject, toward
which the object-related practical and cognitive activity of the latter is
directed" [23. P. 123]. According to this definition, since it is not the
world of objects, but "people" that stand counterposed to the
subject, these people will also be an object toward which "the
object-related practical and cognitive activity of the latter will be
directed."
On the other hand, subject is defined as follows:
'subject-the vehicle of object-related practical activity and cognition (the
individual or social group), a source of activeness directed toward the
object" [23. P. 154]. According to this definition, "other
people" can function as a subject with regard to "this person,"
but only when they, as a "social group," function together as a
'source of activeness directed toward the object."
But whether or not "other
people" are counter-posed as an object to "this person" or form
a general collective subject with him, the question of the subject may still
merely be one of a "relative" concept. This means that in speaking
about the subject, it is necessary to indicate the factor with regard to which
the individual or social group alone can function as a subject. This may be an
object that (according to the above definitions) is the target of the activity
(object-related practical or cognitive) of the particular subject. The concept
of communication fits completely into such a conceptualization since
communication is not a fundamentally new factor in terms of activity.
There is also another way to
conceptualize the concept of the subject, and it truly does go beyond (as Lomov
requires) the categorical framework of the theory of activity, although this
second possibility will require focusing on the 'subject-predicate" relation
rather than on 'subject-object" interaction.
A predicate is what is ascribed
to the subject in a logical statement. A property (in particular, a social
property) characterizing the subject in itself (for example, "Ivan is
Russian") may be ascribed; or a relation (in particular, a social
relation) characterizing two or more subjects relative to one another (for
example, "Ivan is subordinate to Andrei" or "Ivan thinks Andrei
is Anna's husband") may be ascribed.
We should observe that the
subject-predicate relation is an element of philosophical (logical), not
psychological, conceptualization. This comment also applies to subject-object
interaction. Nonetheless, we are familiar with such a psychological
conceptualization of a philosophical theory (namely, the one we find in the
works of Karl Marx) of subject-object interaction, which appears in the theory
of object-related activity.
A research team working at the
Institute of Psychology of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in the '70s
undertook the task of working out a psychological conceptualization of the
philosophical theory (implicit in the works of Marx) of the
'subject-predicate" relation, and thus to devise a psychological theory of
the development of the individual social relation, conceiving of it as a an
extrapolation of activity theory in
Vygotsky's conceptual system (for more details of this undertaking see [42]).
Let us attempt in general outline to show how a theory
of the social relation that complements the theory of activity can help to
overcome the flawed logic common to both nativism and environmentalism.
A social relation is frequently
understood to be an emotional normative relation (or attitude) of "this
person" (I, the self) to "other persons" and to material or
intellectual objects pertaining to the person in some way (V. N. Myasishchev
[20,21]). This conception is quite satisfactory within the framework of
'subject-object" interaction, but adds nothing to its psychological
conceptualization (although this is sometimes claimed). On the contrary, an
emotional normative attitude receives a scientific explanation (not simply a
phenomenological description) only in the theory of activity, which
conceptualizes 'subject-object" interaction in psychological terms (see
Leont'ev's theory of personal sense).
Our understanding of a social
relation, as we have pointed out above, is based not on 'subject-object
interaction," but on a 'subject-predicate" relation. The relation is
that of some predicate to some subject (or a subject to a predicate).
This definition does not mean,
as may appear at first glance, that a relation is derivative from a logical
operation in which the act of relating takes place. The act of relating a
predicate to a subject or a subject to a predicate can take place not only in
logical propositions (for example, "Ivan is subordinate to Andrei,"
etc.) but in any active or passive expression of the subject (e.g., in the fact
that Ivan behaves as if he is subordinate to Andrei, and also in the fact that
people treat Ivan as if he were subordinate to Andrei). At first glance it may
appear that if we have the concepts "Ivan's behavior" and
"dealing with Ivan," we come, in a roundabout way, to that activity
(in which Ivan then figures either as a subject or an object) we rejected as an
all-embracing principle. Actually, this is not so. The fact of being
subordinate to someone is not a psychological, but a sociological, fact. This
sociological relation may be expressed in an activity that, in terms of its
psychological determinants, is independent of that relation. The relation
itself acquires psychological significance only if it is subjected to a special
psychological process called social categorization.
The
prehistory of the concept of "social categorization" goes back,
strictly speaking, to gestalt psychology, i.e., to the discovery that in some
cases perception distorts a shape presented to our contemplation in such a way
that we disregard it-for example, certain aberrations in some typical shape.
Later,
Tajfel & Wilkes [52] found that perceptual distortion that disregards
nuances takes place not just in the field of attraction of typical shapes: it
can also be produced artificially when shapes differing in nuances are divided
into two groups and each of these groups is marked by some symbol. If, for
example, line segments increasing geometrically in length (i.e., uniformly for
perception) are divided into two groups and the shorter are marked, say, by the
letter A and the longer by the letter B, perception distorts the length of the
segments so arranged, minimizing the differences between the length of lines
belonging to the same group and exaggerating considerably the small difference
between the longest of the short segments and the shortest of the long
segments. This distortion of a perceptual image is, of course, not a conscious
process, but takes place spontaneously if different symbols are applied to
environmental factors to separate them into categories and hence combine them
into different groups.
Social
categorization takes place in this process in a spontaneous way, not by means
of some conscious act of thought. It is a special case of the above-described
act in which small differences, receptivity to which a person either minimizes
or exaggerates, exist not between factors in the environment, but between
factors constituting a system of which the person doing the active
categorization is himself a part (see Garai [41]). Tajfel argues:
The substantial difference
between judgments applied to physical and social stimuli lies in the fact that
in the latter case, categorizations are often related to differences in values.
. .This interaction between socially derivative value differentials, on the one
hand, and the cognitive "mechanics" of categorization, on the other,
becomes especially notable in all social divisions between "us" and
"them," i.e., in all social categorizations in which distinctions are
made between a person's own group and external groups that are compared with
it. [49. P. 62]
Moreover, in social
categorization specific symbols are
used to allocate factors to different categories. In an original experiment
[51], symbols with regard to which categorization of two groups was carried out
were constructed by the subjects' arranging abstract pictures in order of their
preference. They had initially been told that some pictures had been painted by
Klee and others by Kandinsky. After this arranging, the experimenter described
some of the randomly chosen subjects as "people preferring Klee" and
others as "people preferring Kandinsky." Under the influence of such
labels, which had no preliminary value for the subjects, the tendency to
minimize the differences within the categories and to exaggerate differences
between categories showed up both in perception and in the subjects' behavior.
Thus, by social category we mean a real similarity among socially
important factors to which a mental aspect is attributed by application of some
symbol of social categorization. At the same time, the difference between these
factors and those to which other symbols are applied is accentuated.
Categorization of social situations in time
As we have seen, "socially important factors"
may be different people participating in the same social situation. At the
psychological level, the act of social categorization then stresses the real
similarity or differences among these people in terms of the particular social
situation.
But these factors are organized
also in time: diverse social situations
alternate in the biography of the same person.
If roles are ascribed in a specific scene to actors each of
whom then performs his role in achieving his goals, these factors, taken
together, characterize the specific social
situation.
These four characteristics
rarely vary all at the same time in a person's life activity, but neither remain they all collectively constant for a long
time. A person deals with variations in some characteristics while other
characteristics of a social situation persist unchanged through social
categorization. Here, too, categorization takes place by some social
situations' being combined through symbols, often themselves insignificant,
into one category, diminishing or even eliminating for the mind the actual
differences perceived among them and, at the same time, exaggerating to the
categorical level their actual differences relative to other life situations.
In our opinion, personality, as part of the subject matter
of psychology, is, in the mentally processed biography of the individual,
manifested as a system of successive alterations in social situations. By
dint of this processing, the personality is able to preserve its self-identity
psychologically despite factual changes in some characteristics of these social
situations. The same categorical process enables the personality to become
psychologically different even when some characteristics of the social
situation are in fact retained.
In his current life
circumstances, a person finds all the characteristics of a situation
objectively determined. For scenes and actors (when a situation has already
been created), this is evidently more or less easily understood. But in terms
of the goals of activity and role ascription, we are more inclined to consider them
not as objectively given, since our everyday experience shows that each person
voluntarily poses for himself his own goal (in the worst of cases, he fails to
fulfill it); but actors can "negotiate" over role ascription (some
may even refuse a role, foreseeing the hopelessness of any
"transaction").
Despite the evidence of
everyday experience, Freud [24,25] considered both the goal of activity and the
distribution of roles in a social situation to be objectively determined. He
believed that a person's sexual instinct (the libido) and, later, death
instinct were objective (i.e., independent of consciousness) determinants of
goals. Freud also thought that the distribution of roles in the Oedipus
triangle was an objective determinant inasmuch as in this role ascription there
could be no "negotiations" about who played the role of the father,
the role of the mother, and the role of the son, respectively (this was
rigorously controlled by the objective system of cultural prohibitions).
In our opinion, the discovery
that the goal of activity and the distribution of roles in a social situation
are objectively determined can be divorced from Freud's formulation of this
discovery. An indication that this separation does not touch the essence of the
discovery is that Freud himself made this distinction when he included the
death instinct among his determinants of goals and transferred the level
determining role distribution from the father to the superego. But this did not
modify his position that the goal of activity and role distribution in a
current situation are objectively determined by something. Freud's successors,
from Adler [27] to Lacan [45], have at various times endeavored to redetermine
this “something," leaving the assumption that it was an objective determinant
untouched.
We should also point out that
the notion that the "forces of production from without, and the instincts
within," to use the words of the Hungarian poet and philosopher Attila
Iozef, must also be ranked among the objective determinants of the goals of
ractivity. Some of the latest programs stress that it is necessary to rank both
"production relations" and the Oedipus triangle among the objective
determinants of role distribution in a social situation (see [37]).
Thus, Freud thought that all
the characteristic features of a social situation were objectively determined.
Situations differ in nuances from one another with regard to these objectively
determined characteristics. The subsequent mental processing of this de facto
difference, given in nuances, raises its status to that of a categorical
difference or reduces it to categorical similarity. This makes symbols applied
to different situations different, and symbols applied to similar situations
similar.
A psychological mechanism of
the first is, for example, repression, which prevents the person from
reproducing the content of consciousness or performing a behavioral act that is
necessary for him in the current situation, but is part of a situation different from
it: in this case, the inhibited manifestation designates a categorical
difference among situations. Similar situations are, on the contrary,
symbolized by a content of consciousness or an act of behavior elicited from
the requisites of a similar situation by a mechanism of
compulsive repetition, despite the goals of the current situation. Freud [24]
described people for whom all human affairs always ended in the same way:
do-gooders who always managed to offend the recipients of their bounty, however
much they might differ from one another; others who many times throughout their
lives extolled someone to themselves, and perhaps even publicly, as an
authority, but soon rejected that authority themselves and replaced it with
another; those in love, for whom all tender relations passed through the same
phases, and always wound up the same way; etc.
Freud's discovery in this
regard is ultimately that all of a person's physical displays and phenomena of
consciousness should be interpreted as special symbols, and that the key to
this interpretation is given in the similarities and differences between the
present social situation and past social situations of the same person, who
makes these similarities and differences categorical by means of such symbols.
The social categorization of different people relative to the same social
situation also takes place by means of such symbols.
In our view, the flaw in
Freud's theory derives from his making this [symbolic] aspect an absolute. If
this is disregarded, another aspect is also raised to the status of an
absolute, namely, one in which physical manifestations function merely as
activity, and the phenomena of consciousness are only the guiding substrate of
this activity. Yet both display the already present properties of subject and
object and do not create new ones by relating a predicate to the subject. To
clarify the ontogeny of psychological structures, the significance of the first
aspect must be taken into account (see Kocski & Garai [44] and, especially,
Kocski's dissertation [7]), just as the role of the aspect of activity must be
taken into account to explain the continued production of mental phenomena.
The flawed logic common to both
nativism and environmentalism can be overcome only by a synthesis of the
principle of activity and the principle of social relation. We must restore
this synthesis as it exists in the works of Vygotsky. For this, it is important
for investigation of the psychological problems of social relations to overcome
their lag relative to investigation of the psychological problems of activity.
Notes
1. Jerome Bruner [32], citing
this calculation, ironically notes that this figure may seem a little inflated,
in which case one could choose a rate ten times less: 102 reinforcements per
second.
2. N. Chomsky's theory of the innate
basis of language was first clearly formulated in 1957 [33]. See also [35,36].
3. For the elaboration of the
conceptual apparatus of social behaviorism, see G. H. Mead [46] and [8].
Especially interesting is his teaching that between the self and significant
others there occurs symbolic interaction, that is, interpersonal communication.
In this mutual flow of beliefs, the self is constituted, a conception that is
often encountered in modern thinking about communication.
4. It is well known that early environmentalism
(for example, early behaviorism), in its turn, stemmed from the inability of
nativistic theories to explain the plasticity of animal behavior.
5. See the chapter
"Relations of the personality-Self-evident or a problem?" in Garay
[40. Pp. 142-59]. See also [4,5,22,38,42].
References
1. Vygotsky, L. S. [Thought and
language]. Moscow and Leningrad, 1934. 324 pp.
2. Gal'perin, P. Ya.
[Development of research in the formation of mental acts]. In [Psychological
science in the USSR]. Moscow: APN RSFSR, 1959. Vol. 1, pp. 441-69.
SOCIAL RELATIONS AND ACTIVITY67
3. Gal'perin, P. Ya.
[Introduction to psychology]. Moscow: MGU, 1976. 150 pp.
4. Garai, L. [A historical
materialist approach to the problem of specifically human needs]. Yop.
Psikhol., 1966, No. 3, pp. 61-73.
5. Garai, L. [Historical
materialism and the personality]. Yop. Filosof., 1969, No. 8, pp. 19-30.
6. Gvozdev, A. N. [Problems in
the study of children's speech]. Moscow, 1961. 472 pp.
7. Kocski, M. [Position in a
social situation and child mental development (A longitudinal study)].
Candidate's dissertation. Moscow: MGU, 1981. 200 pp.
8. Kon, I. S., & Shalin, D.
I. [The world and the problem of the human self]. Yop. Filosof., 1969, No. 12,
pp. 85-96.
9. Leont'ev, A. A. [The
psychology of communication]. Tartu, 1974. 220 pp.
10. Leont'ev, A. N.
[Communication as a topic of psychological study]. In [Methodological problems
of social psychology]. Moscow: "Nauka" Publishers, 1975: Pp. 106-124.
11. Leont'ev, A. N. [Problems
of mental development]. Moscow: "Mysl"' Publishers, 1965. 573 pp.
12. Leont'ev, A. N. [The
problems of activity in psychology]. Yop. Filosof., 1972, No. 9, pp. 95-109.
13. Leont'ev, A. N. [Activity
and consciousness]. Yop. Filosof., 1972, No. 12, pp. 129-40.
14. Leont'ev, A. N. [Activity.
Consciousness. Personality]. Moscow: Politizdat, 1975. 304 pp.
15. Lisina, M. I.
[Communication of children with adults in the first seven years of life]. In
[Problems of general, developmental, and educational psychology]. Moscow, 1978.
Pp. 237-53.
16. Lomov, B. F. [The present
state and long-term prospects of development of psychology in the USSR in light
of the decisions of the 24th Congress of the CPSU]. Yop. Psikhol., 1971, No. 5,
pp. 3-19.
17. Lomov, B. F. [Communication
as a problem of general psychology]. In [Methodological problems of social
psychology]. Moscow, 1975. Pp. 124-36.
18. Lomov, B. F. [The
relationship between the social and the biological as a methodological problem
of psychology]. Yop. Filosof., 1976, No. 4, pp. 83-95.
19. Luria, A. R. [The place of
psychology among the social and biological sciences]. Yop. Filosof., 1977, No.
9, pp. 68-76.
20. Myasishchev, V. M. [The
personality and neuroses]. Moscow, 1960. 426 pp.
21. Myasishchev, V. M.
[Fundamental problems in and current status of the psychology of human
relations]. In [Psychological science in the USSR]. Moscow, 1960. Vol. 2, pp.
110-26.
22. Peteri, V. [Studies of the
problems of the personality]. Yop. Filosof., 1971, No. 3, pp. 183-86.
Another crisis in the psychology:
A possible motive for the
Vygotsky-boom*
Deals with disintegration of the
psychology to a science based on experimentation according to the positivistic
methodology of natural sciences, and another one founded on interpretation
according to the hermeneutic methodology of historical sciences. Considers the
possibilities to reintegrate the psychology by a Vygotskian methodology that
would deal with signs and tools as functionning within the same structure.
key words: hermeneutic vs positivistic methodology; historical vs
natural sciences; Vygotsky, Leontiev; signs and tools
A psychologist in
Hungary today does not necessarily want to be acknowledged for what he does as
a scientist; actually, the number of those who fancy themselves artists or
magicians is growing. On the other hand, those of us who make a point of our
theoretical or practical work being of a scientific nature are willing to
consider psychology a natural science. Indeed, how could something be
scientific if not in the same way as physics, chemistry, biology are?
But how could it
be thought otherwise, when in our university studies the foundations of our
major are laid by anatomy, physiology, ethology, and we graduate without having
had to learn a bit of sociology, linguistics, economics, or history as areas
relevant to our special subject. True, some time earlier a subject called
Cultural History and Anthropology was introduced in psychologist training at
Budapest University, for example, but a more recent reform swept if out of the
curriculum.
On the other
hand, why on earth should we burden our special training with material
seemingly belonging to general culture, if we are firmly convinced that
psychology is a natural science — if a science at all. Or, why should we add to
a study of such border areas of our science as psycho-physiology,
psycho-physics, pharmaco-psychology, the study of such border-disciplines as
economic psychology, political psychology, the social psychology of
macro-systems in general, the psychology of history or philosophic psychology?
Now, this kind of
reasoning in which the arguments mutually validate each other is not only known
to be discussed in chapters on logical error in textbooks of logic. It is also
evident that the vicious circle is the most unfailing means to get an idea
fixed. It comes as no surprise then, that when some thirty years ago I studied
the profession, my generation was trained the same in psychology as a natural
science.
This generation
began after 1956, actually at the same time as the revival of Hungarian psychology,
which had to be revived because in 50s the psychology was considered “an
idealistic pseudo-science in the service of imperialistic interests”. Now, for
our generation it was self-evident that once this stamp had been removed, we
were eager to demonstrate that ours was just as genuine a science as were
physics, chemistry or biology, that it studied as real a material system as
those natural sciences, and that practical application of scientific knowledge
in this domain was as profitable for society as in the rest of the natural
sciences.
Thus, we were
eager to see these expectations to be clearly substantiated by the 18th
International Congress of Psychology held in Moscow in 1966. The congress whose
weight was due to the prestige of the great generation of Soviet psychologists
(Luria, Galperin, and congress chairman Leontiev) and the attendance of Piaget
and Neal Miller who gave plenary lectures, and of Berlyne, Broadbent,
Festinger, Fraisse, Grey Walter, Moreno, and Pribram, was clearly focused on
brain research. By way of illustrating the expectations that dominated not only
our consciousness but even, so to speak, our unconscious, we must mention three
lectures that produced, as I remember it, the greatest sensation:
In his plenary
lecture Neal Miller[1] reported of experiments in which the
functioning of internal organs controlled by the vegetative nervous system had
been modified, contrary to a long tradition, by instrumental conditional
reflexes. For instance, in an experiment a water-supplying machine was started
by the functioning of the salivary glands in one group of thirsty dogs, while
in the another group of them the same device was started by the lack of saliva
secretion. Thus, in the former group the animals learnt to salivate a lot, but
— unlike in the classical experiments of Pavlov — not because water got
into their mouths thereby activating the unconditional reflex of saliva
secretion, but in order to get water in their mouths. In the latter
group, the animals learnt in the same way to moderate their saliva secretion.
Since at that time a great role in forming mentally controlled achievements was
attributed to instrumental learning operating with the relation between ends
and means, and not cause and effect, we listened to Miller's lecture as a
forecast of an issue by which the functioning of internal organs controlled by
the vegetative nervous system will turn into a mentally controlled performance.
Even greater a
sensation was produced at the session chaired by Pribram by papers on what had
been recorded by the special literature as the “learning transfer via
cannibalism”. When planarians swallowed their fellows in which the
experimenting psychologist had previously developed some conditional reflex,
they acquired some of the knowledge of their mates in that the reflex at issue
was easier (and the opposite reflex was harder) to develop in them than either
in the original learner or in those cannibalistic specimens which had swallowed
their untrained fellows (they being the control group for testing the original
experiment).
The third
headliner of the congress reported
an experiment dealing with a topic for the social sciences by way of a natural
science. It could be considered a natural antecedent of the social power
relations in which, in a group of animals, interaction among certain
individuals results in selection of a leader of that group. Delgado implanted a
microelectrode in the brain of such a leader and, by means of that electrode,
was able to control the targeted area's tone that produced just that force
necessary for behaviour that ensured leadership. Then one of those subordinated
to the leader was taught how to handle a wave-emitting gadget by means of which
an impulse could be transmitted to the implanted electrode and, by changing the
leader's cerebral tone, tame the leader's behaviour. The whole audience
probably aggreed in 1966 in Moscow with this paper's conclusion about the
possibility of changing the social order of an entire group — and not just of
animals. Most of those who attended the Congress became convinced that the
natural sciences could thus direct humanity, as Delgado put it in his
monograph's title, Toward a psycho-civilized society.[2]
In such an
atmosphere of the Moscow congress it was then no wonder that in his lecture
(which became a real social happening of the congress) Moreno declared that
attracting and repelling, likes and dislikes were similar to the tendencies
manifest in chemical double decomposition,
and that by optimizing those relations' micro-structure the
macro-structure of society would be harmonized.
In any case, on
behalf of several participants of the International Congress of Psychology in
Moscow, I can safely declare that we returned home in genuine euphoria, and
that this elation had an intellectual cast: our certainty that psychology was
on the right track, the track that had earlier seen running the trains of
physics, chemistry or biology and of many other branches of natural science
from which psychology differed, if at all, only in the greater degree of
complexity of its subject-matter. To quote Pribram, who expressed this feeling
of euphoria in his closing address: “It was a truly historic congress. I am
confident that future generations, when talking of this event, will declare
that here in Moscow we were witnesses to psychology having developed fully
as an experimental science.”[3]
In light
of this, it indeed came
as a surprise that, ten
years later, another
international congress, the
21st, was opened
by Paul Fraisse
in Paris with
an address whose first sentence was: “The field of psychology is in a state of crisis.”
The ten years
separating the two congresses had been devoted to professional work
dominated both in research, teaching and applied areas
of psychology by the
certainty we carried away from Moscow. And now we listened to the Congress
president stating: “The crisis is more than a paroxysm of growth, however, because it is theory that is really at stake. We are in fact in the
midst of a scientific revolution and in Kuhn's
terminology, we are working our way toward a new
paradigm.”[4] Fraisse claimed the search for the new
paradigm was progressing in a direction in which behaviour would be but
the raw material of research, man becoming its real subject.
Doubts whether
the positivistic method of natural science is suitable for comprehensive study
of man are not new. Known are the considerations which prompted Dilthey, for
example, to oppose a geisteswissenschaftliche to a naturwissenschaftliche
psychology. One of the crucially important considerations was expressed by
Dilthey as follows: “The first precondition for a possible Geisteswissenschaft
is that I myself am a historical being, that the person who researches history is identical with the one who makes
it.”[5]
I assign fundamental importance to
this consideration because, for
example, Gadamer derives from it
that the experience of the social world cannot
be converted into
a science by the inductive method of natural sciences[6].
The condition
under which the inductive method of natural science can be applied to an object
is that it be separable from the subject who conducts the examination. But if
Dilthey is right, the object of historical research is not an object of this
kind.
An ornithologist
can study birds with an inductive method because he is not a bird himself: no
matter what — correct or incorrect — statements he makes about birds, They
will never change a single characteristic of any bird. Radically different
is the situation in which “the person who researches history is identical with
the one who makes it.” When under such circumstances the one who researches
history makes some statement about those who make history, it can no longer be
claimed that this does not change any characteristic of any history-maker,
for there does exist one (i.e. the researcher of history, who is, at the same
time, a history-maker) who has one characteristic (i.e. making or not making a
statement about history-makers), that has thus been changed.
Of course, the
researcher of history does not include himself in the object of research; and
if this is a methodologically conscious reservation, not a result of the
researcher's ignorance, it is a justified pocedure. But this is not the cas in
the natural sciences, in which it is not a question of interpretation whether
the ornithologist, for instance, belongs to the class of the studied birds or
not. Here, on the other hand, we have at issue a science in which the frames
of the inductive elaboration of experiences are always determined by
interpretation.
That psychology is in some
way related to such interpretative sciences as well as to the
natural sciences, that
is what is claimed by Dilthey (and
since then by many
other theoreticians). This
link is claimed
not to be a secondary or accessory one.
As a matter of fact,
Dilthey's above cited
consideration is effective even if its
conclusion is turned
around: it may
be claimed not
only that those
who research history
are identical with
the ones who
make it, but
also that history-makers are at the
same time history-investigators. For
the object of psychology is man in reciprocal interaction with others (and not just with the natural environment);
man who, on the one hand, makes history with each of his steps whose precedents
he keeps a record of and, on the other, researches history at the same time, in
that he does not react to the steps of others as to any natural “stimulus” to
which a preliminary learning process has conditioned the response, but by
interpreting them in light of the precedents of their prehistory, the
traditions of their interactions.
According to the
description by the Palo Alto school[7], interaction between A and B can be
schematized as follows:
A's message to B contains a metacommunicative
instruction on how to interpret it;
B perceives the
instruction by interpreting the message, thus the instruction affects the
interpretation depending on the interpretation itself; B's response also contains a meta-communicative instruction on how
to interpret it, e. g., how to sever those moments that are to be ascribed to
the circumstances of the interaction from those for which B assumes responsibility;
A, for his part,
perceives this instruction by interpreting B's
message, but when interpreting the message, he will be influenced not only by
this message mediated by his interpretation, but also by the prehistory of the
current stage of their interaction: that A
remembers what his former message was in his interpretation — this complex of
co‑effective factors will then determine A's counterreply;
B will again react to
it according to a similarly complex set of factors, but perceiving the new
message will also depend on the interpretation of rules created by the
prehistory of the interaction: If this is your answer to my reply, then that
will be mine to yours, etc.
Thus the
interaction by which those involved in it make history implies in each of its
steps an interpretative manπuvering by which they research history.
The ultimate
stake of this manπuvering is to define what functions each of us shall
fulfil within our interaction: Am I, for instance, the principal of the
on-going process or merely its agent? When in marriage therapy the wife
tells the therapist she cannot help raising her voice in despair
whenever her husband comes home late at night as drunk as a fish, and the
husband tells the therapist that he cannot help drinking a glass or two
in his despair when his wife keeps shouting at him at the top of her voice —
then both of them interpret their interaction as if both of them were but its
agent. In another sort of competition, both parties interpret themselves as the
principal of the interaction: at an ironic point in their book Watzlawick,
Beavin and Jackson illustrate this by interpreting the manπuvering of the
experimental white rat which might express the events of the experiment this
thus: “I have successfully conditioned the experimenting psychologist to give
me something to eat whenever I push the pedal.”
This bit of irony
derives its earnestness derived from the fact that according to the philosophy
of the Palo Alto school a sort of game is played between experimenter and
experimentee in which the psychologist is a player just as the experimental
subject is, though the former tries to describe this latter as a natural
scientist describes his object. When doing so, the experimenter as well as
the experimentee do interpret the events and thereby manπuver for managing
to turn the other into the object of the processes to be induced in the
experiment.
“How hypnotist
and subject manπuver each other?” — Haley asks in the title of a chapter
of one of his books[8], describing actually not only the hypnotizer's
manπuvering but in more general terms games psychologists (be they
psychoanalysts or practitioners of, say, short-psychotherapy) play with their
patients.
One may argue
that the psychotherapist is involved in the state of affairs he is dealing with
by practically interfering with it, while the research psychologist, contrary
to him, merely observes matters with a purely theoretical interest from the
outside. However, Haley's description of the psychotherapist's attitude is
weirdly similar to how one could describe that of the research[ing]
psychologist's on the basis of one's experiences:
According to
Haley's arguing, the theories of hypnosis focuses on the individual,
though this phenomenon is entirely linked to the relation. When Messmer
evoked the hypnotic trance by means of his magnets it was quite comprehensible
that the theory meant to explain the effect of the magnetism upon humans and
didn't bother itself too much about the relation of the patients to Messmer.
But later when suggestion got into the focus of the research work, one would
have supposed the moment had come for a shift toward an investigation into the
relations between those giving and those receiving suggestions. But the subject
of research kept being the individual and suggestion was depicted the same way
as the magnet used to be: like a thing in itself influencing the individual,
independently of his relations.
Thus the same is
true for the research psychologist.
When in 1966 (note that it is the same year in which the psychology as a
natural science celebrated its apotheosis at the Moscow International Congress)
Rosenthal was publishing his psychological experiments whose object was the
psychological experiment itself, it could no
longer be denied
that in the behavioral sciences a considerable part of the
facts produced in the
style of natural
scientific experiments were
laboratory artifacts.[9] What this is due to are the implications
discussed by Haley in the above quoted passage: when the psychologist thinks he
as the subject of experimentation is manipulating the object of experimentation
in the way a natural scientist does, he is, instead, involved in a game in
which both players — the experimenter as well as the experimentee — interpret
the events and thereby manπuver for managing to turn the other into the
object of the processes to be induced in the experiment.
When the
psychologist succeeds, the rest of the experiment may well be like a
natural scientific investigation, and the produced research result may
accordingly have a degree of reliability. Newertheless, the manπuvering
phase does differentiate a research of this kind from a natural science
investigation that succeeds in experimentation without such a preparatory,
interpretative phase.
For a long time
psychology failed to notice the necessity of this manπuvering,
interpretative preparation; this feature justifies the critical revision of
psychology's experimental results achieved without such methodological
reflection.
At the beginning of his book Rosenthal gives a long list of cases in which
both scholars of natural and of behavioural sciences fall victim to
psychosocial issues operating on them, when e. g. they fail to recognize facts
that contradict their hypotheses, or fancy the perception with a greater
certainty of the happening of the factual event they expect whereas in reality
it only occurs with a certain degree of probability. Another group of the cases
of distortion listed by Rosenthal include the misinterpretation of correctly
observed facts, and in some cases distortion derives from some intention
propelled by this or that motive (ambition, colleague's jealousy, assistant's
over-zeal, etc.).[10]
However, what may happen to a researcher in psychology is not only what he
has in common with the natural science researcher when they lack submitting
themselves to the impact of his object of research. Actually, the research
psychologist may also (unconsciously but actively) submit his study object to
his own influence, and may then observe that object only as operating under
that influence.
This feature markedly distinguishes psychology from natural sciences in
which it would be absurd to suppose any similar responsivness of the observed
object. Unlike a human being, a celestial or earthly body doesn't change its
speed or acceleration depending on the sex, age, skin colour or religion of the
scientist it encounters. An observed natural process does not react, even
unconsciously, to the observer's reactions to that process but an observed
mental process does. It would hardly happen that, say, a double decomposition
would be stronger or weaker depending on the extent to which the acid and base
chosen as its medium would want involuntarily to further the scholar's cause,
or contrarily, to foil his expectations; or on the extent to which they would
like to act in the experiment similarly or differently from the way the scholar
would presumably act in their place; or again, on the extent to which the acid,
for example, would want to pass itself off as the base.
On the other hand, we know from Rosenthal's book that such and similar
distortions are quite “natural” when behaviour is the studied object. Thus, we
must realize how far from a truly natural science experiment a psychological
experiment is.
Since the time
when, with the spread of psychosocial experimentation, the research
psychologist was forced to deal consciously with these special methodological
problems, it has been noted that an ever-growing part of the peculiar tricks of
experimentation are related to the preparatory phase. These are, specifically,
the techniques of manπuvering by means of which the experiment leader
manages to subject individuals to his experiment. It is beyond the scope of
this paper to explicate how alien to the methodological logic of research in
natural sciences is, for example, the social psychology's routine
methodological trick of employing confederates of the experimenter.
Whereas in the natural sciences the research techniques is ment to separate
the subject of the investigation from its object,[11] that trick in social psychology aims to incorporate
the subject in the object — via participation of the confederates in the
experiment as if they were among its real subjects. Just imagine the
methodological absurdity in natural sciences of, for example, a bacteriologist
placing his assistant in the bacterium culture under the microscope.[12]
Does anybody know
whether Fraisse, in opening the Paris Congress made the above-quoted statement
concerning the new crisis in psychology and the need to shift its paradigm from
studying behaviour to investigating man, was aware of the complications linked
to the fact that the psychologist is human too?
As a matter of
fact, if psychology fails to investigate its object — be it man or behaviour —
according to the norms of natural science, it does not follow that
psychological research cannot be scientific: it is perhaps scientific by the
norms of some
other science. That
is why it is unfortunate if a psychologist finishes his professional
training without learning that the procedural pattern of historical science,
linguistic science, literary science, legal science or any other “moral”
science might apply to examination of certain questions in psychology just as
that of the natural sciences applies to other questions. And it
is unfortunate if, consequently, he has no chance of
learning that from these two half-sciences the construct of a unified logic of
psychology cannot be built by having the logic of one half be denied by the
logic of the other.
A well known
procedure in this denial is when psychology conceds that beside studying the
individual in relation to his natural environment, he must also be
examined as faced with his social environment. The moment history is
postulated as a social environment, the assumption is tacitly made that the world of history is as
external to the person as the world of nature. Thus, it is assumed that the
same positivitstic method of investigation can be applied to both system of
reference as equally separated from man.[13]
On the other
hand, it would not be more fortunate if the matrix were imposed upon
psychology, cultivated as a natural science, by the logic of the new tendencies
of historical sciences: within such a matrix no insights of that scientific
psychology concerning links between mental phenomena, on the one hand, and the
survival strategies of the living organism, on the other, would survive.
Now, there is
some evidence that world psychology has left behind the phase in which it tried
to prove its integrity through the logical imperialism of one or the other
hemi-science and has become receptive to alternative attempts aimed at
harmonizing the logics of the two half-sciences.
One such
attempt is Vygotsky's cultural-historical
theory. “It is neither a wholly natural scientific, biological psychology interested only in the emerging
events and their causes, nor is it a wholly cultural, hermeneutic venture
concerned exclusively with the interpretation of meanings and with motives of
human deeds,” one can read in New Ideas in Psychology,[14] in a study that discovered, 55 years
after Vygotsky's death, his new ideas in psychology.
Last year an
international Vygotsky society was set up[15], and on this occasion, Amsterdam Vrije
Universiteit organized a Vygotsky forum whose participants sought an
explanation to the fact that (while in his native country Vygotsky fell victim
to the past-erasing rage) this scholar is becoming fashionable among the
academic scholars of psychology in Western Europe and especially the United
States. The extent to which it is so is even embarrassing, inasmuch as, for
instance, in just one year four international conferences have highlighted
Vygotsky's work without mentioning each other, and on one of these conferences
the participants set up another international Vygotsky society practically
simultaneously with the Amsterdam move, two, in this case, being somehow less,
than one.
Anyhow, at the
Amsterdam forum it was generally admitted that the somewhat latish move of
spotting Vygotsky and bringing him into fashion seem to be related to what the
J. Shotter's above cited paper calls our attention to: that Vygotsky's
cultural-historical theory carries the promise of a synthesis between the two
psychological hemi-sciences by studying the factors of mental life as signs
and tools at the same time.
The logical implications of such a theoretical construction for combining
two hemi-psychologies could be summarized as follows:
The tool fits into the natural determination series of psychosomatic
interaction between organism and environment. Instead of becoming the object of
a direct activity, such a tool gets integrated like a prosthesis in the acting
system which directly perceives and manipulates its environment through this
tool as if through a transparent medium.[16] The activity directed at the object is
unambiguously determined by the nature of the system integrating the prosthesis
into itself and that of its environment, all independently of the tool.
The sign, by contrast, is the direct object of an activity that is
concerned with its interpretation. The sign mediates between the parties only
depending on how each of those parties interprets it in an interaction referred
to the background of their common or different cultures.[17]
For the Vygotsky theory, mediating factors of this latter kind are tools at
the same time, as well as the former type mediating factors are also signs.
Much as the Vygotsky
school had implications of a synthesis the logic of natural sciences and that
of historical sciences it could not avoid the fate of a psychology of that
historical period: that of its “hemispheres” that was liable to the first logic
got elaborated with Leontiev's activity theory[18]. Leontiev considered the sign as tools, i. e. as
completely transparent when it operates as mediating factor. No interpretation
is needed, according to his theory, for decoding sign's meaning since it
is objectively given in the activity structure as relation between its ends
and means. Though Leontiev made a clear distinction between meaning and
personal sense, he did not consider any necessity of interpretation for the
latter either, the personal sense being equally taken as objectively given in
the structure of activity as a relation between its ends and motives.
On the other
hand, however Leontiev applied entirely the logic of natural sciences to the
psychology his doctrine is an integral part of a theory whose outlook was
formulated by Vygotsky in the following words:
“The mental
nature of man represents a totality of social relations transferred inside the
person, into his functioning. Higher mental functions (e.g., word function)
earlier used to be distributed between people, then became the functioning of
the person himself. Earlier, psychologists tried to trace social factors back
to individual ones. They studied individual reactions found in laboratories and
then tried to find how persons' reaction changed in a collective setting.
Contrary to Piaget we assume that the development proceeds not towards
socialization but towards the transformation of social relations in mental
functions. Earlier, it used to be supposed that the individual has a function
in a finished, semi-finished or embryonic form, and in the community it gets
developed, combined, increased, enriched or, just the opposite, inhibited,
repressed, etc. Nowadays, we may substantiate the assumption that, as regards
higher mental functions, it is just the very reverse. Functions originally
merge in the community, in the form of children's relations, then become
persons' mental functions. In particular, earlier it was held that each child
is competent to think, argue, demonstrate, substantiate his assumption; the
collision of such thinkings allegedly generates discussion. But matters stand
differently. The investigations proved that discussions generate thinking.”[19]
Activity in
Vygotsky's theory treats its object as is explained also in psychology by the
logic of natural sciences, but the subject of the activity is formed by a
social game whose rules cannot be understood unless another logic, that of
historical sciences is adopted by this science.[20]
The international
Vygotsky boom seems to be motivated by psychology's “unconscious desire” to
recover his unity without being compelled to sacrifice for it either the insights developed by
psychology as a natural science, or those whose development was that long
obstructed by such a science.
References
[1] Physical Control of the mind: Toward a
psycho-civilized society (Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, Evanston
and London, 1969).
[2] XXIe Congress International de Psychology -
XXIst International Congress of Psychology: Acts/Proceedings. Prises Universitaire
de France. Paris, 1978.
[3] Dilthey, W.: Gesammelte Schriften. VII. p. 278.
[4] Gadamer,
H.-G.: Wahrheit und Methode. J. C. B.
Mohr (Paul Siebeck) Tübingen, 1975.
[5] Sluzki, C. E.
and Ransom, D. C. (eds.), 1976: DOUBLE
BIND: The foundation of the communicational approach to the family (Grune
& Stratton. New York, London, San Francisco).
[6] Winkin, Y.
(ed.): La nouvelle communication (Seuil, Paris, 1981).
[7] Watzlawick,
P., Beavin, J. H. and Jackson, D. D.: Pragmatics
of human communication: A study of interactional pattern, pathologies and
paradoxes (W. W. Norton, New York, 1967).
[8] Rosenthal,
R.: Experimenter effects in behavioural
research. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1966. (Enlarged edition: Irvington
Publisher, Inc., New York, 1976
[9] Rosenthal, R.
and Rosnow R. L. (eds.): Artifact in
behavioural research. Academic Press, New York, 1969.
[10] Rosenthal,
R. and Jacobson, L.: Pygmalion in the
classroom. Holt, Rihenhart and Winston, New York, 1968.
[11] Aronson, E.
and Linder, D.: Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal attractiveness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.
1965. 156-172.
[12] Garai, L.,
Erös, F., Járó, K. Köcski, M. and Veres, S.: Towards a Social Psychology of
Personality: Development and Current Perspectives of a School of Social
Psychology in Hungary. Social Science
Information. 1979/1. pp.137-166.
[13] Lukacs, G.: Zur Ontologie des gesellschaftlichen Seins.
Die Arbeit. Luchterhand, Neuwied Darmstadt, 1973.
[14] Marx, K.:
Economic and philosophical manuscripts of 1944. In: Fromm, E., Marx' concept of man. F. Ungar, New
York, 1963.
[15] Marx, K.: Grundrisse der Kritik der politischen
_conomie (English translation: London, 1973)
[16] Rubinstein.
S.: Principles and ways of mental
development [In Russian]. Moscow: Publishing House of Soviet Academy of
Sciences, 1959.
[17] G[arai], L.:
Marxian Personality Psychology. In: Harré-Lamb (eds.), The Encyclopedic
Dictionary of Psychology, Basil
Blackwell Publisher. 364-366.
[18] Eros, F.:
Personality Dynamics and Social Existence, by L. Garai. European Journal of
Social Psychology. 4/3. [1974]. 369-379.
[19] Shotter, J.:
Vygotsky's psychology: Joint activity in a developmental zone. New Ideas in Psychology. Vol.7(1989), No.2.
[20] Leontiew,
Alexei: Problems of mental development. Joint Publications Research Service,
Washington, 1969.
[21] Garai, L.: A psychosocial essay on identity [in
Hungarian]. T-Twins Editor. Budapest, 1993. 231 pp.
[22] Garai, L.
and Kocski, M.: On the mental status of activity and social relation: To the
question of continuity between the theories of Vygotsky and Leontiev [in
Russian]. Psikhologitchesky Zhurnal, 11:5. (1990) 17-26.
Vygotskian implications:
Abstract: About a
basic dilemma of Vygotsky's theory: How superior mental phenomena may be treated
as functionning of both brain structures and meaning structures at the same time while latters are of an inter-individual character as opposed to the intra-individual character of the formers. Arguments are derived
from various sources (Vygotsky school's theory of functional organs, Gibson's
ecological theory of perception, ethology's empirical data about territorial
behaviour of populations and Szentágothai's model of organizing neuronal
modules) for transcending mainstream considerations based exclusively on individual organism both by going beyond the individual (toward a supra-individual structure) and beyond the organism (toward an extra-organismic one). The paper presents for the K. Popper's
“World 3’ a possible monistic interpretation that derives not merely meanings
but their logical structures as well from the functioning of supra-individual economic structures instead
of that of the individual's brain structures. A
keynote paper I had originally presented at the International Conference
dedicated to the 100th anniversary of Lev Vygotsky ("The
Cultural-Historical Approach: Progress in Human Sciences and education";
Moscow, 21–24 October, 1996) and
subseqently adapted for a publication.
key words: Vygotsky; brain; meaning; functional organs; brain models: Szentagothai vs Eccles; transcending individual organism; K. Popper's “World 3’
Once Vygotsky said that “psychoanalysis has no conscious theoretical
system, but, the same manner as that character of Molière, without suspecting
the thing in all his life spoke in prose, Freud the scientist did produce a
system: by introducing a new term, making it consistent with his other terms,
describing a new fact, reaching a new conclusion – he went on building at the
same time, inch by inch his system”[i].
The same has to
be said on Vygotsky himself with this difference that he has not, like Freud,
83 but 38 years for adjusting the elements of his theory into a system. This
fact, together with that other that since his death the psychological science
had almost twice as many years for “describing new facts, reaching new
conclusions”, must motivate us for examining against the background of these
facts and conclusions how different constituents of his theory and
implications of such constituents may be brought into harmony.
Vygotsky in his
writings of 1930s time and again argues, in particular, for the most important
role of meaning (znachenie), sense field (smyslovoie polie) in
transformation of the perception and the activity into a specifically human
dealing with objects and, consequently, in producing superior performances as
compared with inferior ones.[ii]
Another thesis of
Vygotsky postulates that the localization of superior functions in brain
structures must be as important a scientific question as that of inferior
functions. Therefore he considers worth praising brain researchers for
introducing meaning-like concepts into the brain research.[iii]
Now, on one hand,
the brain is an intraindividual
extrapsychic mechanism that may well
be linked with the intraindividual psychic phenomena the general psychology
normally studies, but, on the other hand, meaning must be considered an interindividual
phenomenon.
Vygotsky was
completely aware of this interindividual character of meaning that he linked
to the speach and interpreted as being at the same time obobshchenie and obshchenie[iv].
However, the question is, how this interindividual
psychic phenomenon can be linked to that intraindividual extrapsychic
mechanism.
To what extent is
it difficult to put these two points together is to be seen on the instance of
Karl Popper's philosophical theory as applied in John Eccles' brain research.[v]
In the Karl
Popper's ontology the world of meanings and of the logic structure of their
interrelations has been considered as an intersubjective, interindividual
world that is completely detached from the subjective world of our individual
conscious experiences. This latter has been conceived by Popper as equally
detached from the complete material world. The material world (including the
human brain and man-made objects) is considered in that ontology as a World 1, paralleled with the World 2 of conscious phenomena
(including in addition to direct environmental and intraorganizational experiences
memories, thoughts, and even the self, as the subject of all these experiences)
and the World 3 of meanings
interacting with those other worlds.
When
investigating about the ontological status of the “World 3”, Karl Popper
pointed out that it includes together with contents of meanings also
the forms of their interrelations. This latters are
considered by Popper to be pre-eminently “World 3” entities. He conceded that
meanings may be embodied in such “World 1” objects that come to exist as objectivations
of human activity; but as regards logical, mathematical or other
interrelations he precludes such a possibility, insisting that they exist
nowhere but in the “World 3”.
Not even in the
“World 2”, contrary to a rather widespread error in psychological thought:
such relations cannot be reduced to processes of individual consciousness or
to their products stored in individual memory. It is why the subjective
consciousness of an individual may investigate upon them, find contradictions
and look for their solution, i.e., have the same activity with them as with
“World 1” objects that are self-evidently detached from that consciously
subjective world.
Now, at the Sixteenth World Congress of Philosophy[vi],
at a specially organized by philosophers, brain researchers, and psychologists
symposium on interrelation between brain and experiences, whether conscious or
unconscious, Eccles had the opportunity of presenting his brain model
correlated with Popper's philosophical model of those three interacting worlds. And Popper's co-author labelled his
theory dualist interactionalism: the
“World 3” had been completely missing from it. It is worth seeing his arguing
in some details: Eccles (and in their jointly written book Popper as well)
rejects the theory of epiphenomenalism, according to which there is nothing but
a reciprocal influence between the brain and the external world and if in the
meantime some phenomena of awareness and self-awareness happen to arise, this
would allegedly be nothing but an epiphenomenon that would have no effect
whatever on the reciprocating process. On the contrary, Eccles claimes that the
self-reliant “World 2” of awareness and self-awareness itself establishes a
reciprocating relationship with the “World 1” of the brain (for its part,
interacting with the external reality) – hence the designation “dualist
interactionalism.” Now, if in the meantime some phenomena of a “World 3” of
interraleted to each other meanings happen to arise, this would, Eccles
suggests, be nothing but an epiphenomenon that would have no effect whatever on
that reciprocating process between “World 2” and “World 1”. Epiphenomenalism survived; it merely moved
up one level within the system of interconnections.
From the point of view of this “World 3” epiphenomenalism,
it is worthwhile to look at the arguments that prompted Eccles to reject a
“World 2”-related epiphenomenalism. The argument originated with Popper, who,
in his chapters of the book they jointly wrote, pointed out that:
“From a Darwinian point of view, we must consider
the survival value of mental processes... Darwinists must look at “soul" –
i.e., mental processes and our ability to form mental actions and reactions as
a bodily organ that developed under the pressure of natural selection... The
Darwinist point of view must be this: consciousness and, in general, mental
processes must be viewed (and, if possible, explained) as the results of
development in the course of natural selection.[vii]
“World
2”'s phenomena develop in tandem with the increase in the brain's complexity,
Eccles speculated at the World Congress of Philosophy; and yet, according to
the theory of evolution only those structures and processes develop in the
course of natural selection that contribute significantly to survival. If
“World 2” is impotent, then the theory of evolution cannot explain its
development.
As a matter of
fact, we must consider exactly the same logic as applicable also to the “World
3” of interindividual phenomena.
In his
presentation, Eccles (staying within the first two “Worlds”) summarized what
was known of the brain's fine-grained mechanisms at the time of the World
Congress of Philosophy: what we know of the location of nerve cells, and of
their connection with each other. He pointed out that the mechanism revealed by brain research is not adapted for
transforming physical stimuli put in from the environment into mental phenomena
manifesting themselves at the output of the system (in purposeful behavior,
speech). Consequently, we must assume either that conscious phenomena do not exist even at the output of the central
nervous system; or that they already
exist at its input. And the first assumption is rejected by Eccles on the
basis of the above Darwinian considerations.
Therefore,
Eccles's final conclusion at the World Congress of Philosophy was that “the
self conscious mind” a priori exists as a “World 2”, and that a part of the
cortex's operating units (of the 2 million modules, each one respectively
constructed of some 5,000 nerve cells[viii])
form a “liaison brain”[ix]
that serves as a window from the “World 1” to the “World 2”.
Theoretical conclusions of Eccles (and of most
other brain researchers) are supported by a logic that all natural sciences
inherited from classic mechanics. “From earlier theories we have taken over the
idea of corpuscles, together with the scientific vocabulary based on it” –
pointed out the Nobel-prize winner Schrödinger, adding: “This concept is not
correct. It constantly prompts our thinking to seek explanations that obviously
make no sense at all. Its thought structure contains elements that do not exist
in real corpuscles.” Of all natural sciences, it was physics that first
deviated from this logic, when, following its series of crises around the turn
of the century, it presented the concept that “everything – absolutely
everyting – is corpuscle and field at the same time. All matter has its
continuous structure, represented by a field, as well as its discrete
structure, represented by a corpuscle.”[x]
Returning to our
problem, here the “explanations that obviously make no sense at all”, search
for which is prompted by the corpuscle-oriented logic of our thinking, are
related to the question: How does the state of a spatially delimited
individual body influences the states of other bodies that are detached from
the former – a neuron other nerve cells, a module of neurons other modules, a
precise part of the nervous system its other parts, or the integer nervous
system other bodily organs? Now, the answer made out by a “corpuscular logic”
is that spatially defined bodies only interact
to the extent that they enter into spatial contact along their circumferences.
It was this very
logic that has always been applied, in particular, for understanding meaning
although for such a logic this latter has
always remained enigmatic. Since the controversy between Platon and
Antisthenis it has been hard to settle whether meaning is located within the
spatially delimited bodies of individual things, or it exists as an idea
detached from every one at them. It is still more hard to say whether, while
an individual organism gets into contact with an external individual
object, meaning will or will not be transferred into the organism from the
thing (where, as it has just been pointed out, one was unable to say whether
meaning was inherent).
Finally, it is
the least possible at all to decide whether meaning has a mental impact only
when it finds its way into an individual organism. “Corpuscular logic” tries to
cope with meaning by transforming it into familiarity:
as if meaning would have been transferred from the thing into the organism and
by now fixed in one of its parts that is, in principle, identifiable as
responsable for the memory of this organism. On the other hand, one may not a priori discard the possibility that
meaning may have a mental impact even when detached from all individual
organisms being located in a supraindividual system of language, culture etc.
(just the same way as it “in itself” is perhaps detached from all individual
things).
If “corpuscular
logic” does take into consideration this latter possibility, nevertheless it
imposes its own terms upon the facts. First of all, it represents language as a
store of particular corpuscules (i. e. a priori given labels), that would carry
meanings (also supposed to be given a priori) the way real things would be
expected by the “corpuscular logic” to do. Again, such a logic may only
conceive the way meaning carried by a linguistic label becomes a psychic factor
if that linguistic label, being contacted by an individual, turns from external
into internal factor: finds, through some coding process, a corpuscular vehicle
located in a theoretically well identifiable locus in the individual body.
According such a logic, without getting into an, at least, indirect connection
with the individual body the fact that language includes meanings would be
psychologically just as irrelevant as is that other fact of things being given
in this individual body's environmentbefore setting up their contact.
The reason for which Eccles has not dealt with
such (and any other) kind of “World 3” problems and the one for which he made
the above statement about the brain's structure being not adapted for
transforming physical stimuli put in from the environment into mental phenomena
manifesting themselves at the output of the brain, relies on the same
“corpuscular logic”.
While this logic
forced Eccles to search after answers to questions which, according to
Schrödinger's reasoning, are incorrectly put, J. Szentagothai reached entirely
different theoretical conclusions when starting from the same facts (discovered
in part by Eccles' research). Although the model he proposed for the structure
and operation of the cerebral cortex acknowledges the cortex to be “a
wonderfully precise neurological machine with a genetically defined "set
of wires",” he admits that “superimposed on this is an... intermittent and
mutually symmetrical (quasi-random) system of connections.”[xi]
According to the first part of this description, therefore, the cortex has a
corpuscle-type structure; the second part, however, reveals a structure similar
to one of a field: states are defined in it, but the constellation of
corpuscles realizing each of these states gets organized only afterwards, as a
“dynamic pattern” of a quasi-random system of connections.
What Szentagothai
suggests is this: Even though we cannot consider the brain's precisely wired
structure as a mechanism whose operation would yield a mental phenomenon, such
a result can indeed be produced by a brain that we view as a dynamic pattern
emerging in the course of its operation.
In order to
explain the formation of dynamic patterns, we should explain how pieces, none
of which in themselves produce a dynamic pattern, can create an organ whose
function leads to the appearance of that pattern, even though the connection of
those pieces cannot be ensured by a “precise and genetically determined system
of wiring”. Szentagothai provides an impressive description which deals,
however, with phenoma alone, without really explaining the formation itself of
superstructures. He illustrates his point with the stereoscopic perception of
paired images used by B. Julesz[xii].
Respectively, before the right and left eyes of his experimental subjects,
Julesz placed scatterings of dots. One of these was randomly generated by
computer; another was derived from the first set, now assumed to be a
collection of points belonging to a three-dimensional configuration, visible to
the left eye; and yet another was composed of dots belonging to the same
configuration visible to the right eye. When viewing with both eyes, it took
about 8 seconds to transform the random scatterings into an orderly
three-dimensional image. Szentagothai considers it the fact of a dynamic
pattern' emerging that “anyone who formed if
only once (!!) such a pattern, i.e., envisioned their three-dimensional
form, may revisualize these shapes within a fraction of a second even after
months, without knowing which of the once-seen patterns he will be shown. In
other words, if one's brain even once
arranged two entirely meaningless scatterings into the sole possible orderly
pattern, [...] then it may re-create this within a few moments.”[xiii]
At the opposite
end from describing the phenomenon,
we find cybernetic speculations on the
mechanism. These indicate formal preconditions for organizing a functional
system. It is about the organization of such a superstructure that not only
performs a new functionning that would represent by its integrity something
more than just a sum of functionning of partial structures: the new
organization imposes even to these very partial structures a deviation from
their original functionning. According to Anokhin's formal analysis[xiv],
any functional system must be made up of constructs whose operation fits the
following sequence: afferent synthesis of stimuli entering the system; making a
decision on the basis of this synthesis; storing the decision thus made;
instruction to act; reporting back on the outcome of action; pairing the report
with the already stored decision; and, if necessary, correction in accordance with
the result of the comparison.
By Anokhin's
analysis and other similar cybernetic arguments, such functions' are posited as
developing their own organs which target some external factor in the system's
environment in such a way as to synchronize its own state with the state of
that target.
In the course of
synchronization, changes occur in the system's state, too, and one of those
changes, possibly the most important may well be the development of that very
integer superstructure, made up of partial structures whose operation, even
when summed up, could not alter the factor of environment to the extent
required for synchronization. In other words, altering the factor of environmental factor at issue will be achieved
by the newly organized functional system.
On the other
hand, organizing the functional system
will be the performance of that environmental factor: untill this latter
emerges, requiring the operation of a superstructure that existes at that
moment only in its partial structures, the components of this future
superstructure has remained in their unintegrated arrangements, ready for
various uses, but unsuitable for functioning in a critical manner.
If we consider
the organization and the operation of a functional system as the sequences of
the same performance, then we can say about this performance that its organ is an integer superstructure to
which both the system that is actually operating and the enviromental factors
that formerly organized the system out of its partial structures do belong.
From taking into
consideration a superstructure that contains both a system and certain factors
of its environment we may be inhibited by “the idea of corpuscles that we have
taken over from earlier theories and the scientifc vocabulary based on it,”
concerning which I have already cited Schrödinger's criticism. The “thought
structure containing elements that do not exist in real corpuscles” suggests
for a system that its parts are made a
priori operational by their spatial connection, and for a factor of environment
that it can perform any operation relevant to the system only after having
established with it a spatial connection.
This evidence is
contradicted by the revelation that the structures' spatial connection
("their precise wiring") does not in itself turn them into an
operational unit, but this functional system (as the Szentagothai's model
suggests it and shows by the Julesz' demonstration) must first emerge as a
“dynamic pattern” from random connections built on that precise wiring. If this
is the case, however, then it would not be absurd to suppose that a functional
system can be organized from random relationships that are built only partly on
spatial connection.
Such a random
relationship exists between all levels of biological organizations and their
respective environment. If we do follow Schrödinger in rejecting the logic that
would distinguish between a corpuscle considered relevant to a precise function
and others that would be considered as being merely its conditions if a
connection gets established with them, then we may conceive those structures of
allegedly different kind as one
superstructure. Thus, for example, when a cell group for its functionning
needs a precise tone distribution between cells, then a second cell group that
would regulate that tone distribution would not be considered by such a logic
to be an external circumstance, but describes the whole functionning as a
function of a superstructure that includes both the cell group whose tone is
regulated and the cell group performing the regulation.
Such a logic,
however, must face the contingency that for the superstructure that is now
described as the very organ of the function at issue similar observations can
be made. Szentagothai points out for moduls constructed from neurons, “we
cannot exclude the possibility that these "superstructures" of
neighboring, or conventionally connected, neuron networks gives rise to newer
"super-superstructures" of a higher hierarchy.”[xv]
The same interrelation must be established for all levels of biological
organizations.
However, what
actually has always happened untill now was that at one point or another this
logic yielded, in further interpretation, to the logic that does distinguish a
corpuscle allegedly relevant to the function at issue and those supposed to
influence the process according to whether or not they get in connection with
the “appropriate" body. Already the interrelations of the central nervous
system and the periphery were often interpreted according to the traditional thinking: according to it, the functionning
of the central nervous system would be influenced by the periphery as far as
stimuli from the latter would be put in
by a “precise wiring”, and then this central system (even if it is conceived
according to the new logic) would influence the periphery by stimuli put out. In other cases, the logical shift
occurs in the interpretation of the interaction between the nervous system as a
whole and the organs it regulates. But anyhow it takes place not later then at
the moment of focusing scientific interest on the interaction between the
individual organism and its environment.
It occurred that
for the psychology the basic system of reference in scientific observation has
been fixed on the level of individual
organism. For biology such a stage has been but transitory which once
replaced description in terms of cells only to yield (or share), just in the
present period, its position to a molecular
biology, on the one hand, and to a population
biology, on the other.
Psychology's fixation
to the individual organism as reference must be due to its philosophical
heritage. It was psychology enframed by philosophy that stated that
consciousness refers, on one hand, to an object
reflected by it and, on the other, to the individual subject of that consciousness. This philosophical legacy was
combined with the new orientation of a psychology emancipating itself from the
philosophy by means of turning to the biology, which, at the time just happened
to be engaged in describing phenomena at the organism level.
Thus, the Self,
the individual subject of consciousness has assumed a material substratum in
the individual organism. At the same time, another potential heritage from the
philosophy, the one given in doctrine about a supraindividual Spirit, was lost for the psychology, because of a
lack of appropriate biological frame of reference.
Yet, if meaning
is indeed an interindividual mental
phenomenon, as it has been observed above, it must have something to do with
issues of a supraindividual Spirit. Thus, conclusions of Popper about a
“World 3” might be avoided only in such a way that would be similar to that of
Szentagothai's reasoning about “World 2” issues referred to functional
“super-superstructures”.
Only this time
the functional “super-superstructures” have to transcend the individual
organism.
Now I am going to
present scientific essays at conceiving functional organizations that transcend
individual organism and may be referred to mental phenomena.
The Anokhin's description of the functional system relies, after all,
exclusively on structures within the body; environmental structures are
considered only as sources of afferentation and reafferentation.
The activity
theory of Leont'iev, Luria, Zaporozhets and others transcends this model. It
considers functions whose organ is composed not only of the sections of the
central nervous system but also of the most various (nervous, somatic,
vegetative) structures of the entire individual body; and inasmuch as psychic
functions are concerned the individual's
object-oriented activity is considered that must be organized by its tools.
Since this theory (as a Vygotskian one) has claimed that those tools are, at
the same time, signs, i.e. entities historically produced by a culture, this
conception enables the theory to refer the human mind to two frames
simultaneously: by considering it as one produced
by the functionning of both individual brain structures and inter-individual
cultural structures.
But if we have a
theory about the same functionning
of, on one hand, internal and, on the other, external structures, it
implies a theory about a functionning of the
same superstructure composed of both structures inside of an individual
organism and the ones outside of it, inside of its environment. According to
such a theory when the function organizing its organ is an object-oriented
activity, the structure thus produced does transcend the individual organism.[xvi]
When comparing this theory with his earlier
position, Gibson describes the change in his view this way: “[...] at the time,
I based my explanation of vision on the retinal image; now, on the other hand,
my starting point is what I call an ambient optic array. My present conviction
is that we must approach the problem of perception in an ecological way.”[xvii]
This change was brought about because he realized that vision could not be
explained by the manner in which proximate stimuli affect the retina, since
perception could remain constant even if the stimuli change. Gibson analyzes
four instances in which perception remains unchanged in spite of varying
stimuli: (1) change in lighting, (2) relocation on the part of observer, (3)
changes in the sampling of the ambient optic array, and (4) a permanence
prevailing in the face of local changes.[xviii]”
The Gibson school
do not accept either the explanation offered by the Gestalt psychology, since
that theory holds out (as an alternative to the retinal image changing in
response to the environment's proximate stimuli) a form appearing on a frontal
flat surface (a wallboard, screen, or sheet of paper placed opposite the
observer), which an individual corrects in accordance with innate pregnant
patterns. Gibson does make the difference between such an abstract geometric
space in which alone do such forms exist and a natural environment in which
representatives of a given species find themselves nestled.
Gibson's conclusion
is that one is not able to explain the meaningful perception by an animal of
its environment if considering only how (e.g., nervous system) structures given
within that animal's individual body effect
that psychic performance without taking into consideration how the structures
of the environment afford that
performance. Any psychic performance is determined by the mutual compatibility
between affordances and effectivities. According to the
definition by Gibson, “the affordance of anything is a specific combination of
the properties of its substance and its surfaces taken with reference to an
animal”[xix].
This definition got completed with the one given by Turvey & Shaw to what
they consider as a twin concept within the Gibsonian theory: “The effectivity
of any living thing is a specific combination of the functions of its tissues
and organs taken with reference to an environment”[xx]
The authors add
to these twin definitions that animal with its effectivity structure and
environment with its affordance structure are totally symmetrical factors of psychic performances: “By this
conception an [...] environment is defined as a set of affordances or an affordance structure [... and] an
animal is defined as a set of effectivities or an effectivity structure [...]. An econiche is an affordance
description of Environment in reference to a particular species; a species
is an effectivity description of Life in reference to a particular econiche.
And we may schematize the affordance and effectivity conceptions in the
following way, in accordance with the compatibility logic:
An environmental event or situation X
affords an activity Y to an animal Z if and only if certain mutual compatibility relations between X
and Z obtain [...].
An animal Z can effect an activity Y on an environmental event or situation X if and only if certain mutual compatibility relations
between X and Z obtain [...].”[xxi]
Ethology use this term to describe a series of events by which a part of an
animal or human population demarcates a part of its environment and gets,
reciprocally, demarcated by it. This behavior by marking with some sign the
part in question of the environment turns it into a territory, while those performing this behavior expose themselves
to some marking that turns the part in
question of the population a well-identified group. From that moment on that demarcated territory and this
demarcated group are ordered to each other by the territorial behavior: the
individuals thus marked cannot leave the territory they marked for more than a
well defined distance and/or time period, and outsiders cannot approach it
closer than a critical distance. If the latter do so, they provoke a fighting
activity in those defending their territory.
As far as the
territory is already demarcated by the group and the group by the territory,
staying inside or outside the borderline of a territory and, similarly,
belonging or not to a given group elicits categorically different disposition
in an individual for a precise (e.g., fighting or mating) activity.
Such a change in being disposed or indisposed to perform a precise activity
in accordance with the actual state of territorial organization is well
demonstrated by the fighting behavior of the stickleback (Gasterosteus
aculeatus) preparing to mate. The power relations of fighting change according
to whether the individual fish is inside or outside its own territory when
involved in fighting. According to Konrad Lorenz's observations, the
combativeness of a stickleback is in inverse relationship with the given
distance between him and his nest; in his own nest, he is a fierce fighter, but
the farther he swims away from his headquarter, the less he is motivated to
attack. When two male stickleback meets, we can qite accurately predict the
outcome of their fight: the fish that is farther from his nest is the one that
will take flight, Lorenz claims, addig that near to his own nest even the
smalest can dispose of the largest enemy.
One
could (though traditionally does not) put it in Gibsonian terms and say that the territorial behavior
intervenes in the distribution of affordances to the environment and in that of
effectivities to the animal population. The key factor of such a redistribution is a marking activity, an imposition of signs upon a part of
the environment transformed by this means into a territory and, parallelly,
upon a part of the animal population transformed by this means into a group.
Signs when attached not to a part of an environment but to that of a population
may the same way change the disposition of performing a precise activity as
territorial signs do. E.g., male individuals of certain species mark by a particular
biochemical substance the female during mating so as to indispose other males
from mating with that female, even if impregnation was not effective. Likewise,
the issue of a fighting may impose postural signs upon winners and loosers and
the display of such a posture may determine a rather lasting hierarchical
organization without being challenged by newer behavioral trials.
Thus,
neither the group which effects the demarcation of a territory nor this
territory which affords the demarcation of that group is prefabricated, both
are produced by the territorial behavior. In my conception the direct product
of affordances and effectivities would not be, as Gibsonians claim, activities
but functional “super-superstructures” that do transcend individual organism.
Such kind of
combining the above three theoretical discoveries – about an object-oriented
functionning, the mutually coordinated affordance and effectivity structures,
and territorial organization of groups – would enable us to discern a structure
that could be the organ of dealing with meanings. Yet, such a synthesis would
be by no means an easy theoretical performance, considering that
1. territorial
behavior as conceived by ethology has nothing to do with a historico-cultural
dimension;
2.
object-oriented activity as conceived by Leont'iev's activity theory has not
either much to do with a territorial and group dimension[xxii];
3. for the
ecological framework of perception neither a historical nor a social dimension
is conceived by the Gibsonians.
However, such a
synthesis cannot be spared if we are to deal with meanings because this
latter's historico-cultural dimension and socio-territorial dimension are
equally essential.
Vygotsky
emphasised the necessity to reckon with the social aspect of meaning because he
considered meaning to be (to put it in terms of his above cited juxtaposition)
not only obobshchenie
(generalization) but obshchenie
(communication) as well. It was ment that this latter represents the
interindividual dimension against that earlier supposed to be an
intraindividual performance.
We do know the
argument of Vygotsky for intraindividual performances being developped from
interindividual ones. In this sense (in terms referred to the ZPD)
generalization, too, would have to have its psychosocial origin.
However, at the
present time it is known that the social dimension of this performance is still
more essential:
Recent
observations about the ontogenesis of human consciousness support the
assumption on semantic
values being originated from social categorization[xxiii]. It turned out that a child can earlier
elaborate some shades of similarities and differences into categorical
similarity between certain factors and their categorical difference from others
if he himself is one of these factors than in case all those factors are but
objects given in the child's environment. Early social categorization does not
take place as a conscious act of thinking: it is mediated by an unconscious
process of semiosis in which the child's diffuse vocal, motor, postural,
vaso-motor or other somatic manifestations get shaped as signifiers that are attached to parallelly shaped
social categories as their signified factors so
that similar factors should be symbolized by similar, and different ones by
different signifiers.
The
social categories thus created represent similarities or differences not simply
between individuals as such. The individuals are dealt with as occupying
definite positions in one or another of social structures transcending
individual organism; those structures are organized along objects that get
assigned to certain individuals while detached from others in a kind of
territorial behavior. With reference to this territorial behavior, the child
identifies him/herself with some individuals and, at the same time,
categorically distinguishes from others. Based on social categories thus
created and on the mental operations with them there emerges the logical
apparatus that enables the child to structure the same way the external
topological space of objects correlated with that social space and, hence, to
perform operations with the meanings of those objects.[xxiv]
The more organic role an atribute of an object plays in acts of social
categorization, the earlier a child will learn to logically deal with their
attribute.
Thus for instance, an 18-20 month old child is capable of distributing
similar objects among him/her and others, and then distinguishing each of them on the attribute of their belonging to one
person or to another. The same child is unable to differentiate or identify
objects on the attribute of their colours
before the age of three (or even, according to some authors, 4 or 5).
Piaget's classic investigations have resulted that it is not until a child
has spent some years in school that s/he acquires the skill to handle abstract
quantitative relations like equal, greater or smaller length, capacity etc.,
undisturbed by corolary attributes. However, Doise, Mugny and Perret-Clermont[xxv] have recorded similar performances at
pre-school ages, having modified the original conditions of the experiment by
connecting the quantitative relations in question to the organization of social
relations among children. For example, the children were led to discover the
constantly equal quantity of liquids in differently shaped receptacles by
having the task to distribute the liquid – that happened to be very appreciated
by children – among themselves in equal portions.[xxvi]
In a field experiment with my own daughter she presented at 4;8 a rather
complicated performance of projection of a three-dimensional geometrical
structure onto a plane and then transforming that projection. The child was
sitting in a bus that passed on the embankment under a bridge through a tunnel
made to avoid level-crossing of the bridge and the embankment. Her
three-year-old sister exclaimed: "Hey, what a long tunnel!", upon
which the elder girl declared with a contempt that "it would have been
long if we hade gone like this" (she used
her hand to mark the direction perpendicular to the way the bus was running,
that actually was not the direction of the tunnel but that of the bridge),
"but then", she went on, "we should have destroyed the
tunnel". The mother of the children were staying that time abroad and, a
couple of day later, the elder girl was “writing a letter” to her, i.e.,
informing her in various drawings about what happened in the family during the
mother's absance. So I asked the girl to “draw how we passed through that
tunnel” and, thus, she made a drawing of the vertical cross-section of the
tunnel and represented the path of our bus in it by a point. Then, following
another instruction of the same style, she drew once more the same
cross-section with an imaginary path through which the bus would have destroyed
the tunnel. The high achievement in this experiment was due to the fact that the girl was transforming the
structure of a space in which she herself was included in a certain position.
These
considerations may give a new look at a feature at which Karl Popper pointed
out. When investigating about the ontological status of a “World 3” Popper,
though conceded the existence of such “World 1” objects that come to existe as
objectivations of human activity and, as such, embody entities belonging to “World
3”, he considered, however, these factors by no means exhausting the “World 3”
that includes with contents of meanings their form, too. Logical
and, among them, for instance mathematical relations do not exist embodied in
“World 1” things and processes, nor can their existence be traced back,
consequently, to (e.g., brain) structures and their functioning within
individual organisms. What is more important, contradicting a rather widespread
error in psychological thought: neither can such relations be reduced to
processes of individual consciousness nor to their products stored in
individual memory.
What is, then,
the ontological status of these forms, that makes it possible, e. g., for the
subjective consciousness of an individual to make discoveries upon them like
finding contradictions that must have existed there (where? – that is a crucial question for Popper) proceeding
any awareness of them and, after identifying them as problems, to find out
their solutions.
Now, in this
paper two assumptions has been advanced that would enable us to accept Popper's
question without accepting his answer to it: the first, about links between
operations with logical categories, meanings, on one hand, and formation of
social categories, social identities, on the other; and the second, about this
psychic performance being based on an extra-psychic super-structure
transcending individual organism (by shifting both from the organism to a
structure incorporating also environmental factors and from the individual to a
supraindividual formation).
As far as these
two assumptions do stand we may derive logical structures and operations from
real social structures and operations[xxvii]
inside that organization transcending individual organism.
The
interindividual character at issue of these structures and operations might by
no means be reduced to those referred in Vygotsky’s texts to the ZPD. These
structures and operations must not be established with (e.g., adult) persons
who would necesserily be more advanced in their development in order to get the
child developped: interaction between children may as well develop each of them
as the one which an adult does. On the other hand, the interindividual
structures and operations do not necesserily disappear after the intraindividual
faculty has developped.
We started from a
contradiction between various ideas of Lev Vygotsky’s theory and by solving
that we arrived to another contradiction.
Yet,
contradictions are considered within the philosophical framework of Vygotsky’s
theory the main motive of further development of a system, are not they?
* The author is Research Adviser, Institute
for Psychology, The Hungarian Academy of Sciences, P.O.B. 398, H-1394 Budapest, Hungary. Fax: (361)
34-20-514. E-mail: garai@orange.okt.cogpsyphy.hu
[1]
Vygotsky: Istoricheskii smysl psikhologicheskogo krizisa (1927). Sobranie sochinenii, t. 1. Moscow: Pedagogika, 1982; p. 333.
[2] Controversial
points of this conception (see P. Gal'perin: Stages in the development of
mental acts. In: Michael Cole and Irving Maltzman [eds]: A handbook of contemporary soviet psychology.
New-York-London: Basic Books, 1969; pp. 249-273) being indifferent for the
context of this paper, this does not deal with them.
[3]
“[...] reasearchers have been compelled by force of facts [...] to introduce
new psychologic concepts (the doctrine of Goldstein on categorial thinking,
that of H. Head on symbolic function, of O. Poetzl on categorization of the
perception etc.)” Vygotsky: Psikhologia i uchenie o lokalizatsii psikhicheskikh
funktsii (1934). Op. cit., p. 169.
Generalization and communication (or, to put
it in terms of Vygotsky's paronomasia: having
something in common and making
something common).
Karl R. Popper and John C. Eccles: The Self and its Brain. Springer
International, 1977.
See Section papers from the Sixteenth World
Congress of Philosophy (27 August — 2 September 1978. Düsseldorf, Federal
Republic of Germany.
Popper & Eccles: Op. cit., p. 72. This is
in spite of the fact that the Darwinian Huxley wrote: “Mind would relate to the
machinery of the body as a simple by-product of the latter's operation, which
is no more capable of modifying said operation than the sound of steam-whistle,
accompanying the operation of a locomotive is able to influence the engine's
operation." T.H. Huxley, Method and results. Collected essays. Vol. 1. Macmillan, 1898.
Cf. J. Szentagothai & M. A. Arbib: Conceptual Models of Neuronal Organization.
Yvonne M. Homsy Editor, 1974.
According to Eccles, the most important parts
of the “liaison brain" are the Brodmann regions No. 39 and 40, and the
lobus praefrontalis in the dominant hemisphere.
E. Schrödinger: Was ist ein Naturgesetz? München—Wien: R. Oldenbourg. 1962.
Szentagothai: An integral brain theory: Utopia
or reality? [in Hungarian]. Magyar
Tudomany (New Series), 1979, 24.; p. 601
B. Julesz, The
foundation of Cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1971.
Szentagothai: Op. cit; p. 614.
P. K. Anokhin, Fiziologiia i kibernetika
[Physiology and cybernernetics — in Russian]. In Filosofskie voprosy kibernetiki [Philosophical problems of
cybernetics]. Moscow, 1961.
Szentagothai: Op. cit; p. 615.
For the practical application of such an
implied theory see A. R. Luria: Restoration
of brain functions after war trauma. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1964.
J. J. Gibson: The ecological approach to visual perception. Boston etc.: Houghton
Mifflin Co;
1979
Ibid., pp. 310—311.
Gibson, J. J., 1977: The theory of
Affordances. In: R. E. Shaw and J. Bransford (eds), Perceiving, Acting and Knowing - Toward an Ecological Psychology. Hillsdale
N. J., Lawrence Erlbaum Associatrs; pp. 67.
M. T. Turvey and R. Shaw: The Primacy of
Perceiving: An Ecological Reformulation of Perception for Understanding Memory.
In: Lars-Göran Nielsson, Perspectives on
Memory Research. Essays in Honour of Uppsala University's 500th Anniversary;
1977. Pp. 205—206.
Ibidem.
About the necessity and modalities of
complementing the activity theory of Leont'iev with a theory representing this
psychosocial dimension, see:
L. Garai, 1969:
Social relationship: A self-evident feature or a problem? A chapter of the
monograph Personality dynamics and social existence [in Hungarian]. Budapest:
Akadémiai Kiadó [Academic Press], pp. 142—159
L. Garai, F. Eros, K. Jaro, M.
Kocski and S. Veres, 1979: Towards a Social Psychology of Personality: Development and Current Perspectives of
a School of Social Psychology in Hungary. Social Sciences Information. 18/1.
pp. 137-166.
L. Garai and M.
Kocski, l989: The principle of social relations and the principle of activity.
Soviet Psychology. 4. pp. 50-69. (A substantially enlarged Russian version: O
psikhologicheskom statyse dieiatel'nosti i sotsial'nogo otnoseniia. K voprosu o
preiemstvennosti mezhdu teoriami Leont'ieva i Vygotskogo. [On the mental status
of activity an social relation: To the question of continuity between the
theories of Vygotsky and Leont'iev]. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal, 11:5. [1990]
pp. 17-26.
L. Garai and M.
Kocski, 1991.: Positivist and hermeneutic principles in Psychology: Activity
and social categorisation Studies in Soviet Thought. 42. 123-135. (A German
version: Positivistische und hermeneutische Prinzipien in der Psychologie:
Tätigkeit und gesellschaftliche Kategorisierung (Über die Frage von Kontinuität
und Diskontinuität zwischen Vygotskij und Leont'iev. Europäische Zeitschrift
für Semiotische Studien. 1991. Vol. 3 [1-2]. 1-15.)
L. Garai and M.
Kocski, l997: Ieshchio odin krizis v psikhologii! Vozmozhnaia prichina shumnogo
uspiekha idei L. S. Vygotskogo [Another crisis in the psychology: A possible
motive for the Vygotsky-boom] Voprosy filosofii. 4. 86–96.
For this issue see especially:
L. Garai: A psychosocial essay on identity [in
Hungarian]. T-Twins Editor. Budapest, 1993. 231 p.
L. Garai and M.
Kocski: About the link between social categorization and identity formation [in
Hungarian]. In.: F. Eros (ed.): Identity and difference: Essays on the identity
and the prejudice. Budapest: Scientia Humana. 1996. 72-95;
M. Kocski: About
the genesis of individuality [in Hungarian]. In: F. Eros (ed): Ibidem; pp.
129-161.
Köcski, Margit,
1981: Position in the Social Situation and Child's Mental Development. A
longitudinal study (non-published academic thesis; in Russian). Moscow State
University.
On these elaboration processes see some more
detalis in
M. Kocski and L.
Garai, 1978: Les débuts de la catégorisation sociale et les manifestations
verbales. Une étude longitudinale.
Langage et Société. 4. 3-30.
Köcski, Margit,
1981: Pozitsiia v sotsial’noi situatsii I
psikhicheskoie razvitie rebionka [Position in the Social Situation and
Child's Mental Development. A longitudinal study] (non-published academic
thesis). Moscow State University.
Social interaction and the development of
cognitive operations, European Journal of
Social Psychology, 1975, 5, pp. 367-383.
For more details see Doise and Mugny: Le
développement social de l'intelligence. InterÉditions, Paris, 1981.
On the XIII. International Congress of the History of Science (Moscow,
1971) I made an attempt in an invited lecture to analize how the social structure of Europe of late
XVIII. century made the greatest mathematicians of that age (such as d'Alembert, Carnot, Fourier, Gauss, Lagrange,
Lambert, Laplace, Monge, Saccheri, Schweikart, Taurinus and, last but not
least, Bolyai senior) discover at the
same time that something was wrong about the logical structure of Euclidean geometry; and how the social
operating in the most undeveloped Hungary and Russia made Bolyai junior
and Lobatchevsky discover at the same
time (historically speaking: it was the 3rd November, 1823 for the
Hungarian, and the 24th February,
1826 for the Russian geometer) what was wrong about the logical operation of all those exalted
precursors spending almost a century to try to deduce the Postulate V from four
other Postulates, instead of, what Bolyai junior and Lobatchevsky did, going
without the Postulate V at all (cf. L. Garai: Hypothesis on the Motivation of
Scientific Creativity. XIII International Congress of the History of Science.
USSR, Moscow, August 18-24, 1971. "Nauka" Publishing House. M., 224-233.).
In another
investigation I applied the same method of paralleled structural analysis to
the oeuvre of the greatest Hungerian poet Attila Jozsef (The case of Attila
Jozsef: A reply to Gustav Jahoda. New
Ideas in Psychology. 6:2. [1988], pp. 213-217)
Man: May I be the first to speak?
Scientist: Certainly.
Man: To avoid a misunderstanding, notably
that the author may have deliberately used a logical implication by casting me
in the role of man and both of you in that of the scholars. I think that this
simply means that the author does not know or to be more polite, cannot use the
logical rules of classification. He may have meant to imply that I am merely a
man while you are scholarly a men. Now I think the excellent poet and
philosopher Attila Jozsef said of this very "merely a man" in one of
his poems: "man is not yet great, but fancies he is, and so he is
eccentric."
If you scholars allow me to use such
non-scientific terms, my generation, those born between 1933 and 1937 have
incorporated in their genes like an overdose of radiation what the eccentricity
of imagined greatness meant. But what did Attila Jozsef build his optimism on
that made him say: "man is not yet great"? Can we believe him when he
also says in another poem: "I have faith, for, unlike our forefathers, we
get no longer impaled.?"
If so, those who outlived him by a let
alone seven years can no more share his faith, and those who may have seen
their trust revived by the historical changes of a later period must have
gained new experiences from the terrorism against the background of forced calm
in the 70s as well as from the resurrection of certain practices, if not in
Europe, in certain parts of the world, which historical memory buried in its
deepest layers together with impaling: in Cambodia mountains have been constructed
out of human heads, in Iran women have been ordered to veil their faces with
blackÉ
My question, then, is whether science has
any grounds other than the assurance of changing historical experience to
persuade me that man, though not yet great, is going to be one day? That his
eccentricities are similar to those of a three year old's first defiant phase
when he is able to do something alone and thus wants to do everything alone in
order to learn a lot of things; or to the adolescent who tests himself with his
eccentricities to see if he is personally accompanied by Attila J—zsef's
"mind and love"?
Scientist: Attila Jozseflike so many other
artists expresses the desires and anxieties of many of us, probably far better
than the relevant branch of natural science called psychology ever could. But
from the aspect of objective truth art must not be taken seriously. However
captivating the poet's image expressing the lightness of the summer atmosphere
may be: "with silver gayness the birch-tree shakes a whiff of windÉ".
From a scientific viewpoint it is an absurd statement as normally the wind
shakes the tree and not vice versa. Well, similar is the case with the poetic
image referring to the greatness of man.
Contrary to what Attila Jozsef would
suggest if he offered what he does as science and not as poetry, the truth is
that, should I presume that "man is great", I have no reason to add
he is "already great" for he has
been of the same dimension for
over a hundred thousand years; similarly, if my subjective opinion is that "man is not great", I may
not add as an objective prediction that
he is "not yet great", for we
have no reason whatever to believe that
he will change his dimension for the next hundred thousand years either.
Man: I no longer understand a word of this. Does this mean that
natural science has made a new
Copernican about-turn discovering that the course man has taken from the stone
axe to the cybernetic automaton so that we might believe that he would proceed along the same line, well,
that this course is just as much an illusion of our everyday consciousness as
is the one that the sun seems to revolve around the earth?
Will you enlighten me, please?
Scientist: I am afraid I misunderstood you. For a split second I had the impression that you
were talking about the greatness and
eccentricity of man and not of technology.
Man: Indeed, does not man create
technology?
Scientist: The more I reflect on this puzzling question, the more readily I have to
acknowledge that it cannot be otherwise.
Man: Can technology which is developing at
such an accelerated rate have been created by man who has remained unchanged for the last hundred thousand years and seems likely to remain so
for the next hundred thousand?
Scientist: Look, it is the philosopher you have to ask about the logical links
between various things. As for me, I have only put my facts down on this round table. And if you place your facts
next to mine on the table, I will acknowledge that there is more than one fact
placed on the round table of knowledge. Just as one my assume that there must
be more than one thing existing side by side in the sphere of the universe.
Philosopher: If the fact of which your
knowledge or belief in has just been revealed
to us does exist in the universe.
Scientist: Do you doubt it? That becomes a
philosopher. But I can prove what I have posited, notably that man's most
important traits have not changed significantly since the Homo sapiens came
into being.
Philosopher: I am curious to hear how you
will verify this less weighty part of your former statement.
Scientist: Well, then. The clearest way for
the traits of the human species to change during the course of history and for
these changes to accumulate in a given direction is to have each
individual hand down to their offspring
the qualities they have acquired during their individual existence. This would
mean that one generation could grow up
standing on the shoulders of the previous one, so to speak, and man would keep
growing visibly greater as regards many of his valuable traits. We know now,
however, that acquired qualities are not inherited. Another way to accumulate
the valuable qualities of the representatives of the human species at the
expense of the worthless ones would be through the mechanism of selection. What
the selection would need to be able to ensure this bias towards valuable
qualities is that during the subsequent millenia the conditions of existence
should consistently allow /or should allow more and more/ that the chance to
reproduce for specimens with worthless qualities it should be optimum. Now, if you look at
history from this aspect you will find that it fails to create the conditions
for selection of this kind, and fails increasingly to do so.Firstly, it levels
off the differences between the conditions of existence by organizing on a
social scale protection from natural catastrophes /e.g. epidemics/ or other
dangers which are harmful to man, which would more likely hit those individuals
who lack the valuable qualities necessary for survival. Secondly, should there
be some unequal distribution of the conditions of existence within the
levelling-off tendency, the value judgement concerning this differentiation
would still change from one historical period to the next, and beside, the
historical periods with their relatively constant system of values prevail for
an every shortening length of time, whereas, artificial selection needs more
time to accumulate the highly evaluated
qualities in man's genes than a mere lifetime which is given in the most
recent age, or the 150-200 years that was the duration of the bourgeois value
system or for that matter, the one and a half millenia of the feudal
system of values.
Philosopher: Is it wrong for man to be able
to enforce the values of equality and freedom he has chosen himself? For
example, that of equality in levelling off the conditions of existence, and that of freedom of refusing
to tolerate for an ever shorter time that the system of values chosen by his
forefather should dominate him?
Scientist: If I exercise the right of the
onlooker to applaud or boo the "performance" staged by nature on the
basis of nature's "script", then I must say that quite the contrary,
I do rather like that things are happening to man as they are. All I wanted to
point out is that the price to pay for this is that man who undergoing these
things is born today with exactly the same qualities as, say, a hundred
thousand years ago.
Man: And in a hundred thousand years' time?
Or a thousand? Or at least a hundred? To be quite frank the latter dimension
interests me far more.
Philosopher: Indeed, the weightier part of
your statement – that man won't be greater in the future either – is still to
be explained.
Scientist: I think it follows logically from what we said of his history so
far. Yet there is something we have overlooked: mutation. Mutation is a sudden
durable change in the genetic material in response to an external stimulus?
When it occurs at random, in a natural way, it is nearly always an adverse modification
and thee low viability of the mutant luckily kills it before it can reproduce
itself. Very rarely, however, a modification may take place resulting in a
mutant that is more viable under the altered conditions of existence than the
normal specimens of the species. In this
case, the mutant begins to multiply, thereby laying the
foundations of the evolution of a new species. As a matter of fact, it was
mutation among the primates that produced man himself with his new specific
properties: his faculties of thinking, speaking, social organization and work.
Subsequent mutations in man have mostly been determinal with a very few that
have worked. I only left these unmentioned because they made man simply more
various but not "greater".
But if in future – and as things stand
today it will be in the foreseeable future – man has to bring about pre-planned
mutations in an artificial way, he will have an instrument to develop such
traits for himself that will really make him "greater".
Man: This explanation does not lack spirit,
and may also require love /after all, the new qualities have to be reproduced/,
yet I don't think this is what Attila Jozsefhad in mind when he declared that
"man is not yet great".
Scientist: That's right. This is why I said
that man as Attila Jozsefexplains him
won't change his dimension for another hundred thousand years either.
Philosopher: It was the logical consistency
of your whole train of thought that fascinated me most, /while you modestly
denied being competent in the question of the logical connection of phenomena/.
For a man who has been begotten by natural chance and delivered to life by
natural necessity will also in future be forced to copy the accidentally
produced patterns of the mutant faculties of thinking, speaking, socialization
and work – this logical.
Scientist: Not at all. In future, just as
he did in the past, man will also act out the reproduced and reproducible
patterns, that is, he will think, speak organize society and, last but not
least, work.
Man: Through which everything under the sun
may change, mayn't it, except man himself.
Scientist: What man actually passes down to
the next generation is a loose form that is filled in by a wide variety of
contents by the environment. So man as the joint result of these two factors –
inheritance and environmental effect – is more readily seen as something highly
changeable. If you add that due to recessive inheritance not only the
environmentally produced contents of the individual but also the inherited
patterns may differ from those of the immediate ancestors', one can admit that
natural science is really hard put to demonstrate from beneath all these
secondary components that which has preserved unchanged the essence of Homo
sapiens ever since the species began.
Philosopher: Your reasoning has enthralled
me with the elegance of its logic itself is only a form, consequently, it
applies that it can be filled in with a wide variety of contents: false and
true alike. You, for one, have filled it in with false – or erratic – content,
to keep to the polite traditions of round table conferences.
Scientist: If you would kindly explain this
is detail, I should be only too happy to learn from it.
Philosopher: You have doubled my
enthusiasm!
Your reasoning fascinated me first and
foremost with the elegance with which you consistently separated man's essence
from what it is manifest in, as well as the qualities of the whole human
species from those of individuals.Your consistency in differentiating these
twice two things has been so impressive that I would not be surprised to be
interrupted by you warning me that it was a single differentiation you made: by
pointing out the essence of man in its abstract purity you separated the
constant qualities of the human species from the individual variants at the
same time, and by demonstrating how the environmental stimuli, recessive
inheritance and occasional accidental mutations affect the qualities of man,
you marked off the human appearances from the essence that is manifest in man.
From the human essence that is, which is then just as identical with the stable
qualities of the human species as is its manifestation with the individual
variants. These two correspondences are so obvious that mere mention of them
makes the text redundant.
Why I have nonetheless brought up this pair
of truths is because they belong to the false truisms of everyday consciousness
that may totally mislead science.
Man: Totally – if this is not only one of
the superlatives that intellectuals are prone to use than it must mean that the
right orientation tends towards the diametrical opposite of this pair of
correspondences. In other words: man's essence should be identical with the
individual traits,while the stable qualities of the species are mere
appearances. It is an odd assumption.
Philosopher: Well, mine, if you like, is
even stranger.I am convinced that man's essence is identical with his
individual acts, while the so-called "quality"is none other than the
way the individual act appears in his ideological consciousness.
Scientist: In order for us to be able to
evaluate this really peculiar statement, let me make sure that I understood it
properly: what you say is said, isn't it, of the qualities of the individual in
the spirit of such social psychological theories as cognitive dissonance and
attribution theory which claim that personality traits as such do not exist but
are the instruments of consciousness for the subsequent evalution of the
individual act with the halo of which
consciousness adduces rational causes for an act. If this is so, I can
understand your statement even though I can't accept it. But if you think,
which is totally absurd assumption and I only mention it to prevent any
subsequent misunderstanding – well, if you should think that even those
qualities of Homo sapiens the genetic carriers of which inherent in every
normal human being and which are slowly becoming know to us, are also mere
products of our consciousness with the help of which we "explain
away" as it were our acts, wellÉ
Philosopher: God forbid that I should deny
such traits of Homo sapiens as the specific build of the male and female
organisms. Neither would I question that X /by which I do not mean a chromosome
but a specific though unspecified individual/ does have traits,for example the
pattern of the skin on his fingertips by which he can be differentiated from
all the other specimens of Homo sapiens and at the same time he can be identified
with himself from the time of his birth /or even earlier/ to his death /or
later/. Finally I maintain that in addition to such universal and such
individual traits man has some other existent traits capable of objective
investigation with the help of the instruments of natural science, which
characterize many individuals in the same way but differentiate them from other
groups of individuals within the species, I mean traits like blood group or
skin colour. Now, if I were decide whether any of the above kinds of
qualities are essential or superficial,
I would be at loss: the assumption that claims that man's essence is being
"a two-legged, featherless animal" appears just as nonsensical to me
as the one that claims to find the essence of X's personality in the curves of
his fingerprint. It would be too easy to demonstrate my ideas with theories
that operate not with universal or individual traits, but with particular ones
such as skin colour.
Basically different is the case with traits
in connection with which the question of essence and appearance can be raised
adequately. These traits are always the inner disposition of outward behaviour,
the formulation of which gives the answer to the question: Why did X do what he
did?
Abstract - Cognitive dissonance is considered as emerging between the social identity
of persons and that of their acts. An analysis is made of the paradoxical
consequences of a double bind: Those who are A are supposed not to do B and are
also supposed not to think that those who are A would be allowed to do B. The
Cohen-Rosenberg controversy is presented here, revised on this basis, and
illustrated by the two authors’ experiments. It is claimed that the
psychosocial aspect of social identity is complemented by its socioeconomic
aspect. Indeed, the valuation of an identity is always a judgment of the extent
to which this model should be reproduced. The more tolerant or the more
ruthless manner of imposing value models of social identity is determined by
socioeconomic factors On the other hand, the socioeconomic positions may be
specified by psychosocial factors. The psychoeconomic connection in social identity is
accentuated in
post-capitalist societies, turning human faculties and needs into factors to be
produced and reproduced by the economic system.
Some social
psychologists consider that the question of social identity “is nothing but
that of modes of organization for a given individual of his representations of
himself and of the group to which he belongs” (Zavalloni, 1973, p. 245). For
others (see, for example, Sarbin & Allen, 1969) it is what the individual does
from his position in the social structure that defines his identity,
rather than what he thinks about it when comparing himself to his group.
These latter could
argue that one has a social identity of, for example, a working person when he
regularly carries out an activity in working and in claiming the
remuneration for it, rather than because of a representation that he has of
himself or others have of him. And, similarly, it is not being considered as a
hedonist person that identifies someone socially as such, but his acting freely
and in eventually assuming the necessary pecuniary sacrifice for it.
But what about the
identity of someone who works (for example, whitewashing a fence) and assumes a
sacrifice for this activity! Or the identity of that other who acts freely (in
playing, for example, football) and claims the remuneration for this very
activity?
Although these
questions sound absurd, however, we know the story
(imaginary, but too
real) of Tom Sawyer who led his playmates to pay in order to
have the pleaswe
to whitewash a fence. Now, was the social identity of these
children that of a
working person when, on that hot Saturday afternoon, bathing
in the river would
have been a much more attractive activity?
And we know, too, of
the famous Hungarian football captain of the team of the “belle epoque” to whom
people credit the saying “Good pay, good play, bad pay, bad play”. Does this
mean that this sportsman had the social identity of a hedonist player when, at
a time of austere amateurism, he claimed a remuneration in proportion to the work
carried out?
Looking for indicators
of social identity, one may start by preferring acts to representations. But
one soon realizes that it is the representation of an act rather than
the act itself that is the matter here, since one cannot identify
socially a person committing an act without identifying socially the act
committed by this person. Is whitewashing a fence necessarily work, and playing
football a pleasure? Yet, the act of a representation here may be the act
itself in question.
If one plays football
and is paid for this activity, the cognitions referring to these two facts will
be in dissonance that is considered by cognitive dissonance theoyv responsible
for creating in the individual’s mind a tension that is more or less painful
and that can be reduced only by modifying one of the cognitions to the point
where it becomes consistent with the other, for example, by modifying the
social identity of the activity in order to present it as work. It is
the same for the case where one accomplishes a job in whitewashing the
fence and lets oneself be led at the same time to pay for doing this activity.
This supposition has
been tested repeatedly in laboratory experiments. Deci (1975) gave riddles to
students to solve, one group being paid for this activity while another was
not. During breaks, those not paid could not resist going on with the puzzle
solving, while those paid rested after their work. In another
experiment, nursery school children lost their interest in toy A when promised
to be “rewarded” for playing with it by permission to play with toy B, and vice
versa.
At this point, the
question arises concerning the nature of the cognitive field which determines
that two cognitions are consistent or dissonant. In this classic form of the
cognitive dissonance theory, Festinger (1957) did not raise this question,
proposing simply that the dissonance between cognitions A and B emerges if A
implies psychologically non-B. Later, he specified the conditions necessary for
creating dissonance between two cognitions: “Whenever one has an information or
a belief that, taken alone, ought to push one not to commit an act, this
information or belief is dissonant with the fact that one has actually
committed this act” (Festinger, 1963, p. 18).
But, how can an idea
incite one to commit an act? What does “implies psychologically” mean ? To take
a classic example, if one thinks that all human beings are mortal and that
Socrates is a human being, one finds oneself brought by these two ideas to have
yet a third one: Socrates is mortal. If, in spite of this incitement, one
thinks that Socrates is immortal, this produces a cognitive dissonance that has
the form of a logical error. But he who works and at the same time pays for the
pleasure of working commits no logical error, and neither does someone who
plays and is paid for playing.
Strictly speaking, in
this case of a paid player (as opposed to the person paying/07 the
pleasure of working) there should not be any cognitive dissonance,
according to the above Festinger formula. If one has the information or the
belief of being paid for play, one should not be pushed at all by this to not
do the activity. We shall examine this curious matter later on.
To bring us nearer to
an answer, Aronson reformulated the theory (Aronson & Mettee, 1968; Nel et
al., 1969; Aronson et al., 1975; Aronson, 1976). According to his
suggestions, the information or belief which would push me not to commit an act
is the cognition of my social identity incomjxtible with such an act. Aronson
takes into consideration more general dimensions of social identity, such as
reuson and honesty.
If I have the
cognition A, “One makes me pay for work done by myself’, and the cognition B,
“I bring about this activity”, it is not necessary that A psychologically
implies non-B. It is therefore not necessary that a cognitive dissonance emerge
between A and B. On the contrary, if I hold the cognition A, “I am a reasonable
person”, and the cognition B, “I work and, more, I pay to work”, then the
dissonance becomes inevitable, since a person whose identity is described by A
cannot commit an act the corresponding identity of which is defined by B.
According to the idea
that cognitive dissonance can emerge between the definition of the social
identity of the act and that of its author has been revealed as very important
in explaining certain apparent irregularities of this phenomenon. In the
beginning, one supposed, for example, that to believe X and to say non-X was
susceptible in itself to introducing the dissonance. However, to explain this
statement sufficiently in everyday life, the reward or punishment dimension has
been mentioned: getting the former or avoiding the latter would provide an
external justification compensating for the tension of the dissonance.
Lacking such a
justification, the tension would tend to be reduced by bringing the afflicted
subject to believe what he said. This hypothesis (Festinger & Carlsmith,
1959) has been confirmed by many experiments dealing with forced comfiliance
for a contra-attitudinal advocacy. When the reward or punishment received
in these experiments is just enough to force the subject to plead against his
attitudes, he is pushed to believe what he said. But when the punishment or
reward is larger, the tendency of the sub:ject to believe what he said is
weakened. However, there are as many experiments that disprove this hypothesis
demonstrating that the liability of the subjects to adjust their beliefs to
their words is directly proportional to the importance of the reward or
punishment in question.
Now, neither an
inverse nor a direct proportionality between the amount of the reward or
punishment and the tendency to adapt the thought to the word is given, first,
for the simple reason that one may not feel at all the necessity of
co-ordinating one’s thought and one’s words. Once again, it is not between a
cognition A, “I believe X”, and a cognition B, “I say non-%‘, that the
cognitive dissonance manifests itself, but between the cognition A, “I am
honest”, and the cognition B, “While believing X, I lead others to believe
non-X”. It is for this reason, in experiments during which the experimental
manipulations prevented the subject from defining his social identity in
conformity with A (see, for example, Aronson 8r Mettee, 1968) or that of his
act in conformity with B (Nel et al., 1969), that the “normal” display
of cognitive dissonance is then perturbed.
Being among the most
general dimensions of social identity, honesty and reason are still socially
concrete. “To be reasonable” amounts to this: “To choose the most advantageous
alternative”. And “to be honest” amounts to “not to prevent others from
choosing, in conformity with established rules, their most advantageous
alternative”. This means, in the last analysis, that honesty and reason turn
out to be characteristics of the middle class in a capitalistic society.
(Without examining this statement in more detail let us only consider
intuitively the difference between such a “reason” or “honesty,” on the one
hand, and that of Brutus or of a Petrograd proletarian in 1917.)
Now, if it is true
that the cognitions “I believe X” and “I say, convincingly, non- X” demonstrate
a cognitive dissonance only because a cognition defines their relation for the
acting person by socially defining this person, it is also true that the
dissonance between the cognitions defining the social identity of the act on
the one side (“In believing X I lead others to believe non-X”) and that of the
acting person on the other side (“I am honest”) exists only by a supplementary
cognition defining, so to speak, the social identity of the social identity
itself (“Honest people do not lead others into error”).
Thus, the complete
formula for cognitive dissonance is as follows:
1. I am A;
2. I do B;
3. A does not do B,
where A is any social
category and B is any relevant social act. “Any” means that the formula can
convey even contents as concrete as this:
1. I am an authentic
Moslem;
2. I drink wine;
3. An authentic Moslem
does not drink wine.
For all kinds of
concrete incarnations of the above three-piece formula, there exist three types
of reducing cognitive dissonance adjusted to each of the above items,
respectively, and re-defining social identity.
Type 1~ Realize that one is no
more (or that one has never been) A. I am no longer an authentic Moslem since I
drank wine. I am not honest because I pleaded, to convince others, that the
police had their reasons to have penetrated the university campus and to have
killed four supposed demonstrators, at the same time being convinced that no reason
could exist for such disgrace (Cohen, 1962). The cognitive consistency is
recovered, but at the price of losing social identity, a price too high for the
counterpart, such that one pays only at exceptional moments of individual
and/or social identity crisis.
Type 2. Reinterpret B. This
is the sphere par excellence for reducing cognitive dissonance. It
wasn’t wine, but vodka that I drank, consequently, I can still consider myself
an authentic Moslem. It wasn’t work I did, but an amusement, so I can keep
considering myself reasonable when I paid to have the pleasure of whitewashing
the fence, or honest in being remunerated for playing football, since it wasn’t
for play, but labour. And it is the same for honesty in a situation of
arguments contrary to attitudes: if I believe what I say, then I do not mislead
others in error by intention, consequently, I can maintain my identity of an
honest person.
Actually, relations at
this point are more complicated. Besides conditions concerning the form, honesty,
and in the same way, reason or any other social quality, also has criteria
related to the content. For honesty, formal criteria are given if one
does not say what one does not think. The question of content criteria still
remains as to whether this very thought is compatible with honesty.
In this context, we
have to re-examine the famous controversy between Cohen (1962) and Rosenberg
(1965). Cohen invited his subjects to justify the murderous intervention of the
police force during a demonstration on the Yale Campus. As far as honesty is
implicated, this social identity of a person is lost in any case, since he
starts pleading justification of the intervention, either because of a form of
bringing other people to believe something important that is not believed by
the person himself, or by the content of really holding such a belief.
Thus, for this
experience, there is no possibility of reducing a cognitive dissonance referred
precisely to this social identity.
On the other hand, the
form of arguing against one’s own convictions is incompatible with the social
identity of a reasonable person as well, while this time the same content (an
advocacy for police intervention) is not particularly inconsistent with that
identity. Now, it is exactly for the cognitive dissonance referred to the
social identity of a reasonable person that it holds true that the more the
reward is guaranteed or the punishment prevented by this very act, the more the
pains of a cognitive dissonance are compensated. If one advocates against his
own beliefs one runs a risk of losing his identity of a reasonable person, but
to do so for an ample reward or for an escape from a painful punishment is just
the strategy depicting somebody as really reasonable. Thus, it is by no means
surprising that Cohen found an inverse ratio between the size of
reward/punishment, on the one hand, and the willingness of someone, driven by a
cognitive dissonance, to adjust his beliefs to his words, on the other.
As to Rosenberg’s
experiment, the above two factors were related to each other quite differently.
This time, subjects had been invited to advocate very unpopular arrangements of
the University authorities concerning the University’s football team. As to the
honesty matter, this time it has the same form condition: to believe
whatever is said. However, as regards the content conditions, nobody is
prevented from being an honest person only because he does believe, in
conformity with what he has said, that a University’s football team could be
restricted by authorities (while in Cohen’s experiment everybody was prevented
from it by the content of his belief about the National Guard’s murderous act).
Thus, in this
experiment, there does exist the possibility of reducing the dissonance between
two cognitions - “I am an honest person” and “1 believe X while having others
believe non-X” - by the modification of this latter cognition.
We should remember
that the greater the dissonance is, the more powerful is the drive to perform
these modifications. That is the point where the reward/punishment matter
intervenes. As far as the identity of a reasonable person is concerned (as in
Cohen’s experiment) the former serves as a direct index of the latter: the
more profitable the freely chosen act turns out to be the more reasonable the
person manifests himself by this choice. Now, the opposite is true when the
dissonance concerns the identity of an honest person: the more profitable a
dishonest act is the more dishonest it is. For this reason, the better paid
Rosenberg’s honest subjects were (as opposed to Cohen’s reasonable subjects),
the greater was their experienced cognitive dissonance and, for this reason,
their willingness to adjust their beliefs to the statements they had previously
made.
That was what
Rosenberg actually found: he started his experiment in order to falsify
cognitive dissonance theory and re-establish the explanation of facts by
behaviorism. It is highly symptomatic that the whole cognitive dissonance theory,
being interested exclusively in the formal aspect of its phenomena, tried to
parry the conclusions of his experiment. If, however, contents of social
identity are taken into consideration, Rosenberg’s attempted falsification
turns out to be a powerful verification of this theory.
It is the same
fixation of this theory (originating from that of Lewin which in turn derives
from that of “Gestalt”) on mere form that may be held responsible for the way
in which it treats the above three-piece formula in type 3. It is at this point
that it would be the most promising to attack, since it is this cognition in
the three-piece formula which is undermined the most directly by cognitive
dissonance. This is the case because, in spite of what this form pretends, there
appears an A (namely me, I who am A) who does do B. Why consider that an
orthodox Moslem does not drink wine if there is one (me) who does do it? If it
is about the natural identity of objects one has no reticence in
proceeding this way:
While having the
belief (3) “The glasses of a given set do not break”, the evidence
(1) “This concrete
glass belongs to that given set”, and the empirical experience
(2) “This concrete
glass is broken”, one can be brought to adjust his belief (3)
rather than his evidence
(1) to his experience (2).
It is therefore
surprising that cognitive dissonance theory does not take into consideration
this way of reducing the dissonance. Why not reduce.dissonance of, for example,
a dishonest act by concluding that “Some honest people do lead others into
error”. It is as if the cognitive psychologist said “Those who deliberately
deceive others are in fact dishonest people”, or “He who acts against
his own interest is really unreasonable”. Actually, it is not said, to
the degree that this implication seems evident. Still, the same theory argued
since the beginning with empirically observed data of subjects who neglect the
most real facts of nature (such as, for example, a connection between
lung cancer and the use of tobacco, or a danger of earthquakes in the area
where one lives). Would the facts of social identity be more real than those of
nature and, at that, of such a life importance?
Far from that, the
facts of nature cannot be modified by cognitions: to go back to the preceding
example, to class or not class an object among glasses of a set to notice or
not notice that it breaks, modifies in no way the fact of belonging or not
belonging to the glasses of this set nor that of being or not being fragile. On
the contrary, it is true, as formulated by Georg Lukacs (1976), that
consciousness has an ontoloRca1 .statu.s in the society, meaning for our
present study that cognitions that ref’lect facts of social identity are
also facts of this identity.
Thus, one carries out
actions, among them socially relevant ones such as deceiving others or
revealing the truth to them, drinking or not drinking wine, etc. At the same
time, one may happen to think about what has been done and its social meaning,
but those acts of thinking are themselves acts, too, and as such they may, like
any other act, be relevant for one’s social identity. Namely, bringing an
action against item 3 of cognitive dissonance is an act of thinking that is the
most relevant for this matter. Thinking one may commit dishonest acts and still
deserve honour is another dishonest act. Can someone who drinks wine consider
himself an authentic Moslem? Certainly not, since he does something that is
prohibited by Islam. Next, may someone who still considers him as an authentic
Moslem be considered as an authentic Moslem. Certainly not, since he thinks
something that makes nothing of the sacred interdicts of Islam.
To be fixed, the
criterion of belonging to a category of social identity must be set at two
levels at the same time: one of socially relevant facts and another meta-level
of representations of these facts that are also socially relevant facts.
Let us go back to the
above three-piece formula for cognitive dissonance. We have seen that item 2
introduces an ambiguity in identity representation. From item 3 I can conclude
that “I am not A since I do B” (being given that A does not do B). At
the same time, from item 1, I can conclude that “A can do B since I do B” (being
given that I am A). This ambiguity could introduce arbitrariness into the
definition of social identity which would be from now on a matter of
consideration.
Let us consider, for
example the following statement of Tajfel (1981): “We shall adopt a concept of
‘group’ identical to the definition of ‘nation’ proposed by the historian
Emerson (1960) when he wrote: ‘The simplest statement that can be made about a
nation is that it is a body of people who feel that they are a nation; and it
may be that when all the hive-spun analysis is concluded this will be the
ultimate statement as well’ (p. 102).” (pp. 229-230).
What is particularly
appreciated by Tajfel in this “definition” is that by it, “members of a
national group are considered as such when they categorize themselves with a
high degree of consensus in the appropriate manner, and are consensually
categorized in the same manner by others. His statement is essentially a social
psychological one: it is not concerned with the historical, political, social,
and economic events which may have led to the social consensus now defining who
is ‘in’ and who is ‘out’. But there is no doubt that these events were crucial
in the establishment of the nature of this consensus, and equally true that the
consensus, once established, represents those social psychological aspects of
social reality which interact with the social, political and economic events
determining the present and the future fate of the group and of its relations
with other groups” (Ibid).
However, it is
undecided whether such a type of social, political and economic events incites
someone to draw a conclusion from item 3 or, on the contrary, from item 1. Let
us suppose that events in a population are marked for a long historical period
by cooperation. For this reason will a group be formed (being given the
principle according to which those helping each other are at one with each
other)? Or,for the same remon will there be formed a large consensus about the
mutual dependency producing mutual hate (being given the experience shared by
everyone of a frustration by the impossibility of going without others)?
Now, if one would
venture to reduce dissonance by type 3, this would make the dissonance reappear
at a meta-level:
l.IamA;
4. I think that A can
do B;
5. A does not think that
A can do B.
The attempts to reduce
the meta-level cognitive dissonance (that is superimposed upon the one
represented in the formula given earlier by the modification of each of the
cognitions would produce a very particular configuration.
For the configuration
concerning item 1, we saw above that modification signifies the definition of
one’s social identity. The superimposition of this second three-piece formula
on the first adds a constraint to that of abandoning one’s identity because
of what one does: the constraint to abandon it because of what one thinks.
I must recognize that I am no longer an authentic Moslem because I drank
wine, but if in spite of it I claim identity of an authentic Moslem it means I
consider violable the inviolable principles of Islam that imposes upon me a
second constraint to give up my authentic Moslem identity. In the same way,
while having committed a dishonest act, one can only claim the identity of an
honest person if he is, in accordance with this dishonest thought, dishonest.
It is this very double bind (cf. Watzlawick et al., 1967) that
brings those who are subjected to it to an identity crisis ending eventually in
a modification of the represented identity.
If, furthermore, it
was item 4 that one tried to modify, we would regain item 3 and the original
dissonance founded on it. Finally, the modification of item 5 would bring us to
an infinite regression: to think act B compatible with the social category A,
then to think that act of thought compatible with membership in this category,
then to think the same thing of the second act of thought, etc.
This double bind is
that of an ideology. For as far as it is concerned, the arbitrariness described
above cannot exist any more. The induction from a fact can only proceed toward
the definition of social identity as if their relationship was also given as a
fact. (Let us remember what was said above: “Those who deliberately deceive
others are Zn fact dishonest people”; or “He who acts against his own
interest is really unreasonable”.)
True enough, here it
is the real social identity that is concerned, in the sense that it is
independent of judgments (“true” or “false”) concerning this identity. However,
the reality of social identity is different from the facts of natural identity.
The way in which nature treats natural identity can be observed by ethological
phenomena, such as the proximity or distance keeping behavior of animals (Hall,
1969). The critical distance depends, besides the present activity, on what one
could call the natural social identity of fellows. Animals, in the
conditions associated with a certain type of activity (feeding, mating,
migration, fighting, etc.) let themselves be approached or seek the proximity
of a certain category of equals while at the same time keeping a distance from
those who do not belong to this category. Supraindividual formations of this
nature are organized and made possible by a system of signals produced by
individuals.
However, the criterion
by which they signify individuals belonging to social categories arises from
the genetic program of the species. Thus, once established, categorial limits
will be respected unanimously by each individual of the population,
independently of each individual’s categorial belonging.
On the contrary, the
criteria of the social identity of man are imposed only upon those who set a
value on that identity (on the beginning of the definition of social identity,
see Kocski & Garai, 1978). Thus, if it seems evident to us that
someone who uses illegitimate means to keep others from taking into account
their own legitimate interests is dishonest, this is by no means a reflection
of natural criteria of belonging to the category of honest people. It is merely
the proof of our intention to belong to that category: to be honest one must
think in a precise way about what one must do to be honest. On the other
hand, if we simply take notice of the criteria of a Moslem identity without
finding it evident that a wine drinker cannot have it, it is one proof that we
have no intention of identifying ourselves as Moslems.
The claim to have a
given social identity imposes the criterion of considering certain criteria as
indispensable for belonging to this category, with such evidence that is not
contested even by those who lack these criteria. This can be illustrated by
t,he phenomenon of the sinner’s remorse. A sinner is someone lacking
acts that serve as criteria of belonging to a social category valued
ideologically and, for this reason, finding himself excluded by those who
legitimately belong there. The sinner, smitten with remorse, excludes himself
and by doing so, together with authentic representatives of this category,
shows that he belongs to it, too. Sinners who repent are highly valorized by
ideological categories because it is this paradox of their social identity that
perhaps best distinguishes social identity from natural identity (in which, let
us remember, none can show his belonging to a category without producing what
is considered as its signs).
So far, the matter in
question is about really lacking acts that are the criteria of a claimed
social identity and, consequently, finding himself enclosed in a paradoxical
dilemma: whether to claim the social identity in question and, in this way, add
to a lack on the object level another on the meta-level’(i.e. add to acting
inadequately thinking inadequately on that act), or, to punish by excluding
himself from the community of that social identity and, thus, redeem the lack
at the object level by this fervour at the meta-level.
Another type of
paradox of social categorization, quite different from the previous one as to
its structure, is that of confession of non-committed crimes. The whole
generation of people committed to the left-wing cause has made efforts to find
out the horrific secret of social psychological drives of those accusees of the
Moscow (see Medvediev, 1972), Budapest (Savarius [Szasz], 1963) and Prague
trials (London, 1976) who displayed compliance with the violent demand of
confessing merely imagina9 acts of high treason supposedly committed
against the Communist Party in order to display their intransigent devotion to
this party. The matter is that the very act of insisting on not having done
anything against the Party would constitute the act itself against the Party,
as far as the Party is identified with the directives issued by its leaders and
when these latter prescribe precisely the confession of non committed acts
against the Party. (For other aspects of paradoxes of social identity see
Garai, 1977, 1981, 1983, 1985; Garai & Eros, 1976; Garai et al., 1979.)
With the paradoxical
definition of social identity, social reproduction is at stake. In each society
there exist cultural (both technical and moral) models of well defined social
identity with a high reproduction rate, while differently identified models
have a more or less lower chance to dispose of material conditions of their
reproduction. There exists a correspondence between the socio-economic
identity defined by the distribution of these materzal conditions of
social reproduction between social categories, on the one hand, and the
psychosocial identity defining the attribution of more or less value to sociul categories,
on the other.
Socio-economic
identity endows psycho-social identity with an energetic aspect defining
to what extent social categories in a given historical period of a given
society are or are not able to tolerate each other’s existence or being
included in a given (familial, f riendly, club, work etc.) setting, individual
cases . of belonging to both categories, etc. On the other hand, the
psycho-social identity endows the socio-economic one with an informational aspect
that defines what kind of social (economic, national, religious, cultural etc.)
categories are included in and excluded from the disposition of material means
of reproduction.
Now, this two-way
determination becomes accessible for investigation as far as the two level
organization of relations and its paradoxes are taken into consideration. Thus,
for example, investigations about intergroup relations (such as the Bogardus
survey), taking into consideration only the object level of really existing,
socio-economically created interaction of groups, had almost no psycho-social
character. When Sheriff (1966) got interested in the matter of this latter
character he created artificially this aspect by means of an experimental
manipulation of such formal components of the meta-level as co-operation and
competition. On the contrary, Tajfel (1981, pp. 228-253 and 268-287)
discovered that the real social context imposes upon an experiment not only an
object level of the real socio-economic membership groups of its subjects, but
also a meta-level of their willingness to establish psycho-social groups of any
kind and categorically exaggerate the internal similarities and external
differences of both the pre-existing and the newly established groups.
The same is true for
the opposite form of the above relations. There is probably not much
possibility of demonstrating that a psycho-socially founded category becomes a
socio-economically relevant one (claiming, for example, that such-and-such
psycho-social group becomes the dominant class). Nevertheless, we know the
investigation of Voslensky (1980) about the Nomenklatura. The
Nomenklatura is a set of key positions interrelated with each other in the
social structure of “really existing socialism” and a set of people who can
exclusively occupy these positions. Now, the author provides the richest
picture of a psycho-social game regulating the matter of who occupies which
position, and he succeeds in outlining how this game regulates the
socio-economic structure of a society because both the latter’s object level
and its meta-level are concerned with a paradox introduced by the former. The
nature of this paradox is as follows:
Those in more central
positions subsequently define the rules of the game according to which
they are previously elected, or members are subsequently elected
for more central positions entitling them to define previously the rules of
this game. In such a system social identity once defined by psycho-social means
is reproduced according to socio-economic ends.
But taking into
account the paradoxical structure of social identity we may advance toward a psycho-economic
theory comprehending both psycho-social definition and socio-economic
reproduction of patterns of social identity.*
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An Alternative
Economic Psychology
[In Hungarian]
Tas Editor, 2006. 294 pp.
The antecedents of this
monograph are four editions of the one entitled Foundation of an Economic
Psychology that has been published [in Hungarian] by the Hungarian
Economic Society in 1990 and reprinted (in 1992) for teaching purposes by the
Budapest Economic University. Its second, redacted edition has been published
by the Attila Jozsef University (General Economic Psychology, 1996 [reprinted: 1997]). The third, enlarged
and redacted edition: Attila Jozsef University Press, 1997 [reprinted: 1997].
The fourth edition: The human potential as capital: An approach by the economic psychology. “Aula” Economic University
Press, 1998 [reprinted: 1999, 2000, 2001; an illegal reprint misentitled The human capital as potential:
2002]).
The
mainstream psychology is based on a methodological individualism. The proposed
monograph presents an
alternative to that academism by approaching economic psychology (as well as
some features of political psychology, socio-psycho-linguistics etc.) from the
aspect of social interaction and social identity, as linked both to micro- and
to macroeconomic issues.
The economic psychology is
claimed by the monograph to have emerged as a science about psychologic phenomena turned into economic factors during a historical period labeled as second modernization and facing the necessity of producing human resources at the cost of
consuming material resources.
The first chapter
“The Economic Psychology Approach” presents an axiomatic model
of the economic man
and some contemporary reason for which
the real economic activity does not
correspond to that
model. The psychology of behaviorism that corresponds to the “economic man’ model and
three alternative psychologies (that of cognitive
psychology, of psycho-analysis and
the social psychology) are
presented in some
details. They are
comparatively examined in their capacity to explain market
and organizational economic activity of men.
The problem of needs of an “economic man” is evoked
and a theory of specifically human
basic need is proposed as a solution to that problem; the structure of the hypothesized need corresponds to that of a specifically human activity defined
along both technical and social criteria.
The second chapter “Mediating Economic Transactions: The
Psycho-Social Identity” makes a distinction between two kinds
of psychologic phenomena turned into economic factors: technical dispositions of mastering things' attributes and social dispositions of mastering persons' relations. It states that
unlike the material production depending only on technical
attributes of both producing and produced factors, the modern human production is determined also
by the factors' social relations. These latters are dealt in terms
of psychosocial identity that
is presented as the key-concept of the economic psychology.
Psychosocial identity
is considered to be produced
by an elaboration of not attributes (whether
psychological characteristics of a person
or sociological characteristics of his status)
but relations. This elaboration is the social categorization. It is from the early
childhood on mediated
by an unconscious process of semiosis in which the child's diffuse vocal, motor,
postural, vaso-motor or other somatic,
as well as developing behavioral, verbal, intellectual and affective manifestations get shaped as signifying factors that are attached to simultaneously shaped
social categories as their signified factors
so that similar identity factors should
be symbolized by similar, and different ones by different symbols. In grown-up
people this mechanism is a powerful one for diverting their economic behavior
from the rationality norms of economic man: this behavior's acts get a symbolic value
and, thus, their
destiny is strongly
influenced by that of social
identity they symbolize. At the same
time, objects of the economic
behavior get allocated, according to a territorial mechanism, to one or another
social category (whether
it is represented by a large or small group
or just one person); the possession enables owner(s) to and, respectively, disables others from well-defined economic
activities.
The second volume is a sample of application of the general economic psychology’s above findings to various issues of both market and organization behavior.
The third chapter “Managing
Material and Human Resources” deals with the economic psychology of manufacturing and purchasing goods, marketing and financing activity, management and development transactions, organizational
and socializational behavior. Information management and knowledge economy are
dealt with in more details, as approached by economic psychology. In
contrast to economics, economic psychology does not consider information
management as a merely control process but as one of
the real processes in that system; on the other hand, in
contrast to psychology, the economic psychology considers the
knowledge economy a social and not an individual
performance, the monograph argues. While the social identity is considered to be the main factor mediating between individual and social
matters, as well as between
control and real processes, it is argued that at the same time it creates a
new duality: between information
and knowledge, on one hand,
identity itself and the deed investing someone with that identity. This
duality becomes consummate in that of contemporary universities with their
bifurcation of the knowledge supply and the diploma supply.
The fourth chapter “Managing
Human Resources: The Second Modernization”. The modernization is
defined as a generalized tendency of artificial intervention by the
socio-economic system into natural processes in order to manufacture conditions that are necessary for its own functioning.
During a first period, in the 18-19th century the modernization meant, on
one hand, manufacturing the material
factors the system depended on, and, on the other, making the system independent of the human phenomena that had not
been produced by itself. However, from the end of the 19th century onwards the actual socio-economic
system's running has no longer been independent of the faculties and needs
effective in the population, hence a second modernization imposed upon the
socio-economic system the necessity of manufacturing
(and not only exploiting) human (and not only material) conditions of its
functioning.
This necessity is analyzed in
terms of human capital invested
either by one of the interested parties
(whether the one supplying the human potential or the one demanding it) or the
state. Possession relations of human
capital are analyzed in details, since the capital invested by the state
into the formation of a person's potential will be organically integrated
in his body and mind, and will be inseparable from the physical and mental
faculties that were originally given to him.
In the aspect of manufacturing
human conditions are investigated the totalitarian
states. They are claimed to directly apply the strategies of the
19-century large scale material processing industry in establishing a
large scale human processing industry in 20th century. It deals with that human condition,
too, that is represented by the social
identity marked by either competition or monopoly, a perfect (i.e. e., not
disturbed by any monopoly) competition being as important a condition for a
market economic system as is a perfect (i.e. e., not disturbed by any
competition) monopoly for a planned economic organization.
Paradoxical consequences of
such a human processing industry are evoked. When the relations of either competition or monopoly are
concerned, the intact juxtaposition of both of them without any bias is nothing
but their competition. On the other hand, when either the competition gets
eradicated from a socio-economic system (considering the necessities of a
planned organization, as is the case for the Bolshevik type totalitarian state),
or the monopoly gets extirpated (in order to fit the needs of a market, as in
case of a Fascist, a national-socialist kind totalitarian state), the
manufactured product is straight a monopoly.
However, the main difference
between two types of totalitarian states is dealt with in terms of
difference between issues of that human processing industry: those of a fascist type are claimed to establish a
large scale industry for peoples attributes,
while in Bolshevik type
totalitarian societies their relations,
too, get manufactured.
The fifth chapter “The
Bolshevik-Type Version of the Second Modernization”. Bolshevik type societies,
instead of being investigated from either an ideological or a politological
aspect, are approached, too, by the economic psychology. For such an approach,
both structure and functioning of those societies are tested from the point of
view of a human capital economy within
the frame of the second modernization.
The second modernization’s basic dilemma is presented: the more
highly qualified human potential is involved the larger and larger amount of
capital is required for its
manufacturing – and, at the same time, the larger and larger autonomy is required for that human
potential's running. As far as the required capital is ensured by the
involvement of the State the autonomy turns out to be in short supply, but if
the aspect of the autonomy makes the state get out from the human business by
charging the costs of human development to the individual's account then
capital will be scarce.
Therefore the organizing
principle of these societies are not only bureaucracy
setting social power to the office a person incidentally occupies but also charisma that sets it directly to the
person as referred to his record. Being originated from 20th century's radical anti-bureaucratic (illegal)
mass movements, the charisma provides not only a leader but the whole
headquarter of the revolutionary movement and even the whole party as its
vanguard with a social power independently from anyone’s office. On the other
hand, as far as this collective charisma
is concerned, in Bolshevik-type structures the person gets (and loses) his
glamour by being invested with (and, resp., dismissed from) a charisma just
like with (from) an office: in order to get the social identity that is
independent from any appointment one has to be appointed. This procedure of
bureaucratically appointing someone to a collective charisma gets
institutionalized in the Nomenklatura
that links to each other the status of the functionary
and the identity of the commissar.
Such features of the Bolshevik type social structures, together with a
self-establishing machinery of the democratic
centralism for the identity of those belonging to the Bolshevik type Party
are claimed by the monograph to be psycho-economic devices for keeping in
operation a peculiar processing industry whose final mass-product was, for a
totalitarian state supplying the capital needed, a rather peculiar version
of the autonomy needed: the complicity of the system's victims. Both the functioning and
crash of the Bolshevik type system are analyzed from the point of view of a
paradoxical self-establishing psychosocial effect (as opposed to a
self-undermining paradoxical effect of the fascist type totalitarian states'
functioning).
Treating the Bolshevik-type organizations’ structural dualism (that used to be best known as a “state and party leadership”) leads on to the closing sixth
chapter “From the Post-Bolshevik Structures toward an Information-Processing Large-Scale Industry”. The Bolshevik-type twin-features are compared to the twin-structures of the information-processing (e.g., to the duality of the information's bearer and its place value). The Bolshevik-type structure that is made up of concentric circles is studied as an information processing device in which information may travel exclusively in centripetal and centrifugal directions while its path is strictly blocked between the neighboring but separate peripheral units of each ring (e.g. the primary party organizations). In such a structure the center has a perfect control over the totality of the output informations; hence, this center is enabled to provide 1., the perfect protection of data; 2., the total control of addressees and 3., a virtual periphery set up around any of the concentric rings which can at any moment be substituted by the center for the real one (it is the function of the Ministry of Truth in Orwell's 1984).
In this closing chapter
of the monograph psycho-economical conditions of an
information economics are analyzed. The economic psychology
in contrast to economics, does
not consider information processing as a merely
control process but as one of the
real processes in that
system; and
in contrast to psychology, it considers information processing a social and not an individual performance,
the monograph argues. Psycho-economical peculiarities of information’s
property relations, as well
as appropriation and alienation
operations are analyzed within
modern information management. The social identity
processed by social categorization is
considered the main
factor mediating between
social and individual issues, as well as between control and real processes.
A new general tendency of materializing that
social categorization in societies' new splitting
in an elite and a mass is critically analyzed as a kind of a radical
settling of the second
modernization’s basic dilemma: this time both the
capital required for
manufacturing a highly
qualified human potential and the autonomy that is required for its running get focused on the side
of the elite,
while on the
side of the
mass there is both factor's lack. This asymmetry of identities within
organization is paralleled by the monograph to markets
with asymmetric information
(Akerlof–Spence–Stiglitz).
1.
The Economic Psycho-Sociology Approach
1.1. Modeling
Economic Behavior
1.1.1.
The Market Behavior
1.1.2.
The Organization Behavior
1.1. The Apport of the Psychology
1.1.1. Behaviorism
1.1.2.
Cognitivism
1.1.3.
Social psychology
1.2.4. Psychoanalysis
1.2.5. A Synthesis: Is It
Possible?
2. Mediating Economic Transactions: The Social
Identity
2.1.The Antecedents of Social Identity in Ethology:
The Territorial and the Signifying Behavior
2.1.1.
The Human Specificity of Social Identity
2.2.Elaborating Social Identity
2.2.1.
Substantial and Formal Identity
2.2.1.1.Social Status
2.2.1.2.Formal Features
2.2.1.2.1.
Similarity and Differences
2.2.1.2.2.
Competition and Ranking
2.2.2.
Social Categorization
2.2.2.1.Symbolizing Social Categorization
2.2.2.2.Criteria of the Social Identity
2.2.2.3.Being Disposed vs. Indisposed by the Identity
2.2.2.4.The Taboo
2.2.3.
Social Categorization and Social Listing
2.2.3.1.Attributes and Relations
2.2.3.2.“An”-type Identity and “The”-type Identity
2.3.Elaborating the Economic Identity
2.3.1.
The Paradoxical Nature of Economic Behavior
2.3.2.
Property Rights and Identity
2.3.2.1.Property
2.3.2.2.Office
2.3.2.3.Competency and Competence
2.3.2.4.Capital and Networking Capital
2.3.3.
Economic Psychology of Outstanding Social Identity
2.3.2.1.Measuring Value of
Outstanding Social Identity (VOSI)
2.3.2.2.Racer's costs and
profits: Converting Money into VOSI and vice cersa
2.3.2.2.1.
Investing into VOSI
2.3.2.2.2.
Return from VOSI
2.3.2.2.3.
Asymmetric Market and Outstanding Social Identity
2.3.2.3.Applying VOSI in Human Resource Management
3. . Managing Human Resources: The Second
Modernization
3.1. The
Modernization: Manufacturing Resources
3.1.1.
The First Periode of
Modernization: Manufacturing Material Resources and Independency from
Human Resources
3.1.2.
The Second Modernization: Manufacturing Human
Resources
3.2. A Plant for the
Large Scale Manufacturing of Human Resources: the Totalitarian State
3.3. The Human
Potential as Capital
3.3.1.
Investing and Profiting
3.3.2.
Three Principal Questions of Human Capital
3.3.2.1.Who Should Be the Investor in Human Capital
3.3.2.2.Who Profits from Running the Human Capital?
3.3.2.3.Who is the Owner of the Human Potential?
3.4. A Rather Strange
Manufactured Product: The Relation
4.
The Bolshevik-Type Version of The Second Modernization
4.1. (Bolshevik (=
Majority): A Relational Identity
4.2. Manufacturing
Substantial vs Formal Identity
4.3. The Bureaucratic
State Governed by an Illegal Movement: Soviet-Type societies and Bolshevik-Type
Parties
4.3.1.
Office and Charisma
4.3.1.1.A Collective Charisma
4.3.1.2.Official and
Commissary
4.3.1.3.The Nomenklatura
4.3.2.
A Large Scale Manufacturing of Relations
2.3.2.4.Why crushed it down?
5.
A Dilemma for the Post-Socialist Period’s
Economy: Knowledge-Based or Identity-Based?
5.1.
Manufacturing Knowledge and Skill
5.2.
Manufacturing Identity and Qualification
5.3.
Know-How or Diploma?
5.3.1.
Distant Teaching
and Diploma Mills
Key words: social identity; social
categorization; identity markers; document;
Behaviorism vs. Cognitive Psychology; Psychoanalysis vs. Social Psychology; psychosocial relations vs.
attributes
market behavior vs. organizational economic behavior; money vs. social
status;
second modernization; human resources processing; human capital;
Bolshevik type vs. fascist type totalitarian societies; information management
Chapters of the monograph and some further texts related to its topics and available in non-Hungarian
To the first chapter: The Economic Psychology Approach
Problems of specifically human needs.
French version: Recherches Internationales: Psychologie.
1966/9. (51). 42-60.
Russian version: Voprosy Psikhologii. 1966/3. 61-73.
Spanish version In: A. Luria, A. Massucco Costa,
R. Zazzo and B. Teplov:
Problemática científica de la psicología actual. Editorial Orbelus.
Buenos Aires, 1968. 63-85)
Interpretation of needs in foreign language psychology and the question of motives of a scientific activity [in Russian]. In: M. Iaroshevsky (ed.): Problems of the scientific creativity in the contemporary psychology, "Nauka" Publisher [Publishing house of the Soviet Academy of Sciences]. Moscow, 1971. 224-233.
Hypothesis on the Motivation of Scientific Creativity. XIII International Congress of the History of Science. USSR, Moscow, August 18-24, 1971. "Nauka" Publisher [Publishing house of the Soviet Academy of Sciences], Moscow, 1971. 224-233.
An invited lecture to the Congress' symposium "On the personality of the scientist in the history of science". Applying the theory presented by the Personality dynamics to the analysis of parallel discoveries of Bolyai and Lobachevsky it argues for the individual creative idea being determined by the social history even in the most abstract mathematics.
Strength and Weakness of Psychological Science. International Social Science Journal. 25. (1973). 447-460. French version: La puissance et l'impuissance de la science psychologique. Revue Internationale des Sciences Sociales. 25 (1973). 491-504.
The destiny of the contemporary psychological science is considered by the paper on the background of the socio-economic system's necessity of manufacturing (and not only exploiting) human (and not only material) conditions of its functioning (second modernization hypothesis). A technological application of this science (in cultivating skills) is compared to its ideological application (in cultivating attitudes).
Conflict and the Economic Paradigm. Dialectics and Humanism. 2. (1977). 47-58.
Class conflicts are represented at two levels simultaneously: at an object-level about the distribution of resources and at a meta-level about the rules of dealing with conflicts of object-level. The paper argues for all macro- and micro-social conflicts in the society being constructed according to this paradigm.
Marx' Social Theory and the Concept of Man in Social Psychology. (Co-author: Ferenc Eros) Studia Psychologica. 20/1. (1978). 5-10.
Towards a Social Psychology of Personality: Development and Current Perspectives of a School of Social Psychology in Hungary (Co-authors: F. Eros, K. Jaro, M. Kocski and S. Veres). Social Science Information. 18/1. (1979). 137-166.
Report on the research work of the authors' team in '70s in the Institute for Psychology of Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Main arguments of a production-centered meta-theory as opposed to the both naturalistic and spiritualistic one and of a theory elaborated by that team in a Vygotskian frame of reference.
Paradoxes of the social categorization [in French]. Recherches de Psychologie Sociale. 3. (1981). 131-141. (Comments of R. Pagès: Recherches de Psychologie Sociale. 3. [1981]. 143-151)
Marxian Personality Psychology. In: Harré-Lamb (eds.): The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology. Basil Blackwell Publisher. 1983. 364-366.
Toward a psycho-economic theory of social identity [in French]. Recherches Sociologiques. 1984. 313-335.
Social Identity: Cognitive Dissonance or Paradox? New Ideas in Psychology. 4:3. (1986) 311-322. (Comments: G. Jahoda. New Ideas in Psychology. 6:2. [1988] 211-212. Reply: The case of Attila József: A reply to Gustav Jahoda. New Ideas in Psychology. 6:2. [1988] 213-217.
Determining economic activity in a post-capitalist system. Journal of Economic Psychology. 8. [1987] 77-90.)
Contends that the main tendency of (both planned and market) post-capitalist system is considered to be the production of personal (and not only material) conditions of functioning of that system. That includes not only production of technical disposition to master things but also that of social disposition to master (or, at least, be superior to) other persons. These are as important organizing factors for an economic system producing its personal conditions as are value in use and value in exchange for the one producing its material conditions. Typical cases are cited when the economic activity is not determined by the price of the item produced by it, but, rather, by the social identity of the producing person.
To the psychology of economic rationality. In: Understanding economic behavior. 12th Annual Colloquium of IAREP, the International Association for Research in Economic Psychology. Handelhøjskolen I Århus, 1987. Vol. I. 29-41.
Argues for the impossibility of deriving rationality criteria from substantionally given human needs. Instead, it proposes a Lewin-type formal approach to the structure of human activity whose ends, whatever they are, become quasi-need and determine the value of other objects becoming means or barriers, depending on their position in that field. For the specifically human activity taking into consideration a further factor structuring the field is proposed: taboos. Thus, the formal rationality criterion is: gaining ends in spite of barriers that are surmounted by means got in spite of taboos.
Why bureaucratic control over economy is not that rational? Paper presented to the 13th Annual Colloquium of IAREP [International Association for Research in Economic Psychology] (Louvain, 1988).
While production of material resources is determined only by technical attributes of both producing and produced factors, effects of production by a modern socio-economic system of its personal resources depends on those factors social relations as well. Bureaucracy is considered as a power of mastering the production of personal resources through the institutionalization of these relations.
Foundation of an economic psychology. In: T. Tyszka and P. Gasparsky [eds]: Homo Oeconomicus: Presuppositions & Facts. Proceedings of the 14th IAREP Annual Colloquium. International Association for Research in Economic Psychology. September 24-27, 1989. Kazimierz Dolny, Poland. 333-346.
Claims that the "human nature" in various socio-economic systems is different: 1. In a strict market economy it is close to the one described by the notion of "homo oeconomicus" and scientifically investigated by a behaviorist psychology: in any choice situation the individual chooses what s/he has preferred the most. 2. In an economic system shifting from the strict market toward a mixed economy the agents' "nature" comes much closer to what the cognitivistic psychology considers as such: the individual starts to prefer what s/he has previously chosen. 3. In a strictly planned economy the human content expressed by the economic behavior corresponds to the description by the psychoanalysis: individuals instead of consciously making choices unconsciously consent to being chosen by a supra-individual system that is hold by the "father" but interiorized by the super-ego of the "sons". 4. Finally, for an economic system that is shifting from this strict planning toward a mixed economy instead of agents' "nature" we have their "culture" described by the social psychology: there turns out not to be any valid possibility of establishing an order of preference among them.
Another crisis in the psychology: A possible motive for the Vygotsky-boom (co-author: M. Kocski). Journal of Russian
and East-European Psychology. 33:1. [1994] 82-94. – Full text. Italian version: Ancora una crisi nella psicologia: una possibile spiegazione per il
"boom" di Vygotskij. Studi di Psicologia dell'Educazione. 1994/1-2-3. 141-150. Enlarged Russian version: Voprosy Filosofii. 1997/4. 86-96. – Full text
Vygotskian implications: On the
meaning and its brain. A keynote paper. In: Mezhdunarodnaia
konferentsiia "Kul'turno-istorichesky podkhod: Razvitiie gumanitarnykh
nauk I obrazovaniia". Proceedings. Rossiiskaia Akademiia obrazovaniia i
Rossiisky Gosudarstvenny gumanitarny universitet. Moskva, 21-24 oktiabria 1996.
No. 3. – Full text. Russian
version: In: Subject,
Cognition, Activity: Dedicated to V. A. Lektorsky’s 70th anniversary. Moscow: Canon+, 2002. 590-612.
Vassily Davydov and
vicissitudes of our theory [in Russian]. Bulletin
of the International
Association "Developmental Education". 5.
20-26. – Full text
To the second chapter: Mediating Economic Transactions – The
Psycho-Social Identity
Conflict and the Economic Paradigm. Dialectics and Humanism. 2. (1977). 47-58.
Class conflicts are represented at two levels simultaneously: at an object-level about the distribution of resources and at a meta-level about the rules of dealing with conflicts of object-level. The paper argues for all macro- and micro-social conflicts in the society being constructed according to this paradigm.
Paradoxes of the social categorization [in French]. Recherches de Psychologie Sociale. 3. (1981). 131-141. (Comments of R. Pagès: Recherches de Psychologie Sociale. 3. [1981]. 143-151)
Toward a psycho-economic theory of social identity [in French]. Recherches Sociologiques. 1984. 313-335.
Social Identity: Cognitive Dissonance or Paradox? New Ideas in Psychology. 4:3. (1986) 311-322. Comments: G. Jahoda. New Ideas in Psychology. 6:2. [1988] 211-212. Reply: The case of Attila József: A reply to Gustav Jahoda. New Ideas in Psychology. 6:2. [1988] 213-217.
On the cognitive dissonance as emerging between the social identity of persons and that of their acts. Paradoxical consequences of the two identities' double bind are analyzed: without doing A no one may pretend to the identity B and without being subjected to this law no one may pretend to the identity B either.
The principle of social relations and the principle of activity (co-author: M. Köcski). Soviet Psychology. 1989/4. 50-69.
The brain and the mechanism of psychosocial phenomena. Journal of Russian and East-European Psychology. 1994/6. 71-91.
An attempt at the solution of dilemma: How psychosocial phenomena being of an inter-individual character may have their organ while the brain has an intra-individual character. The paper argues for mainstream considerations based exclusively on individual organism being transcended both by going beyond the individual (toward a supra-individual structure) and beyond the organism (toward an extra-organismic one). Author derives his arguments from various sources: Vygotsky school's theory of functional organs, Gibson's ecological theory of perception, ethology's empirical data about territorial behavior of populations and Szentágothai's model of organizing neuronal modules. The paper presents for the K. Popper's "World 3' a possible monistic interpretation that derives meanings from the functioning of supra-individual economic structures instead of the individual's brain structures. An enlarged version of the full text
The price of excellence. Inquiries into the Nature and Causes of Behavior.
Proceedings of the XXIV. Annual Colloquium of the International Association for
Research in Economic Psychology. Belgirate, 1999. 750-759. – Full text
To the third chapter: Managing Material and Human Resources
Hypothesis on the Motivation of Scientific Creativity. XIII International Congress of the History of Science. USSR, Moscow, August 18-24, 1971. "Nauka" Publisher [Publishing house of the Soviet Academy of Sciences], Moscow, 1971. 224-233.
Interpretation of needs in foreign language psychology and the question of motives of a scientific activity [in Russian]. In: M. Iaroshevsky (ed.): Problems of the scientific creativity in the contemporary psychology, "Nauka" Publisher [Publishing house of the Soviet Acad. of Sciences]. Moscow, 1971. 224-233.
Towards an economic psychology of consumption. Trends in world economy, 70. Consumption and development: economic, social and technical aspects. (1992) 35-43.
The paper argues for the main motive of the purchase being not of biologic (i.e. referred to a need satisfaction) but of social (signifying social identity) character. This latter represents not only ends for the purchase but means as well that legitimates, together with the payment, the claim for an article, and especially on a seller's market.
To the fourth chapter: Managing
Human Resources: The Second Modernization
Determining economic activity in a post-capitalist system. Journal of Economic Psychology. 8. [1987] 77-90.)
Contends that the main tendency of (both planned and market) post-capitalist system is considered to be the production of personal (and not only material) conditions of functioning of that system. That includes not only production of technical disposition to master things but also that of social disposition to master (or, at least, be superior to) other persons. These are as important organizing factors for an economic system producing its personal conditions as are value in use and value in exchange for the one producing its material conditions. Typical cases are cited when the economic activity is not determined by the price of the item produced by it, but, rather, by the social identity of the person producing it.
To the fifth chapter: The
Bolshevik-Type Version of the Second Modernization
Why bureaucratic control over economy is not that rational? Paper presented to the 13th Annual Colloquium of IAREP [International Association for Research in Economic Psychology] (Louvain, 1988).
While production of material resources is determined only by technical attributes of both producing and produced factors, effects of production by a modern socio-economic system of its personal resources depends on those factors social relations as well. Bureaucracy is considered as a power of mastering the production of personal resources through the institutionalization of these relations.
The Bureaucratic State Governed by an Illegal Movement: Soviet-Type societies and Bolshevik-Type Parties. Political Psychology. 10:1. (1991) 165-179.
Soviet type societies evolve the universe of their ideological appearances in relation not to matter as in a capitalist society (according to Marx: reification) but to persons. Traditional Marxian criticism of such an ideology claims persons in Soviet type societies to be but personifications of positions in a bureaucratic structure. The paper argues that the organizing principle of these societies is not bureaucracy but charisma originated from 20th century's radical anti-bureaucratic mass movements. The social power that is set not to the positions persons occupy but to persons directly gets provided in those societies' structures not only to a charismatic leader but to the whole headquarter, the whole party as a van of the revolutionary movement and even the whole revolutionary movement. The paper analyzes the paradoxical structure of that collective charisma: the person gets (and loses) his glamour that is independent from his office by being invested with (and, resp., dismissed from) it just like with (from) an office. Democratic centralism is described as the principle of such a paradoxical organization where the "Centrum" gets its social power by being put in its charisma by a "Demos" being put in its one by that social power. The connection of such a paradoxical structure with the mass-production of social relations is analyzed.
The Bolshevik-type psycho-economic system: An essay on a paradoxical psychologic structure in economy. Paper presented to joint meeting of IAREP [International Association for Research in Economic Psychology] and SASE [Society for the Advancement of Socio-Economics]. (Stockholm, 1991).
About the political system's shift in Hungary: Considerations of a social psychologist [in Russian]. Vengersky Meridian. 1991/1. 69-79.
The Bolshevik-type psycho-economic system: An essay on a paradoxical psychologic structure in economy [in Russian]. PolIs 1993/1. 72-76.
To the sixth chapter
About the notion of information in the research on living systems [in Russian]. In: Philosophical questions of biology. "Nauka" Publisher [Publishing house of the Soviet Academy of Sciences], Moscow. 1973.
Theses on Human Capital. Full text
A measure for social
comparison within organizations*
Prof. Laszlo Garai DSc. |
Dr. Margit K. Köcski CSc |
Abstract. In modern (whether small, large and nation-wide or
global) organizations man has a prime interest in bearing an outstanding social identity based on a
favourably selected status. The more excellent is one's social identity,
the greater his/her chance to obtain, at a definite cost, an economic benefit
(access to a scarce resource or to an advantageous transaction). Both money and an outstanding social status are required for an economic chance.
This paper
deals with a calculation device
for converting the values of these mediating factors into each other: the
measure of outstanding social identity (MOSI). It applies the same logic by which the information
theory calculates the value of the news about an occurrence that might have
been expected with a well-definable probability. The probability at issue
for calculating values of outstanding
social identity (VOSI) is the one to be estimated in advance for getting
an outstanding status in the organization and for this p probability the value is calculated as the logarithm of the
invert of p. This device for calculating
the VOSI enables complementary calculation of, e.g., additionnning,
averaging etc. values.
The MOSI is
presented in the paper, among other use, as applied to optimize human resources
management.
How outstanding am I?
A measure for social comparison within organizations*
Prof. Laszlo Garai DSc. |
Dr. Margit K. Köcski CSc |
In the 1950s and
1960s economists, sociologists, psychologists and philosophers described,
independently of each other and using different terms, the phenomenon of craving for status. They claimed that
this motivation might become just as much a passion for man in the modern age
as the craving for money used to be
for those living in the 17-19th centuries, in that period of
classical capitalist formation.
The change is
also manifest in the fact that while the former passion prompted to the accumulation of money, the latter one
may well encourage the spending of money not
even earned, but borrowed. The latter, however, does not bring pleasure through
the consumption of the goods in line with their utility value, but through the
fact that the goods acquired, or the money spent on them, symbolize status. For
a time it was customary to describe this period as the period of a consumer society, and to speak (with a
degree of social criticism and ideological disapproval) of the craving for
status symbols and conspicuous consumption. In connection with this, it was
emphasized that in his consumption man was being guided less and less by the
rational goal of achieving the greatest possible joy for the lowest possible
cost, or the highest possible profit by the smallest possible inconvenience,
and more and more by what was required by his position in society. One's
guiding criteria for purchasing were instead based on what was required by
his/her position in society. It seems that the 20th century man had
an important interest in acquiring a
somehow excellent social identity based on a favourably selected status.
When individuals,
groups, states, and groups of states spend money on keeping up their social
status and their identity within that status their motive for this is not an
aristocratic or snobbish zeal. Instead, it may be rather rational: the
endeavour to be among those with access to scarce resources, or to be enabled
to participate in some kind of advantageous transaction.[21] The
more advantageous the status of a candidate in society among those competing
for a transaction, and the more excellent his social identity in regard to
others, the lower the transaction costs will be for him/her. For this
reason it might make sense to spend money (or, in more general terms, invest
money, goods, time, chance to take on
the venture) on increasing excellence. The only question is, how much money etc. is reasonable to be spent
on how important an increase in the exellence of one’s identity.
The present
study tends to contribute to giving this question a possibly exact
answer.
*
If money spent
symbolizes status, then it could be that the acquisition of money grips modern
man not because of his earlier passion for chasing it, but because acquired
money can also symbolize status. Activity is motivated primarily not by the
difference perceptible between costs and profits, but increasingly by the
difference between our net income
and that of others[22].
When in the
conditions of so-called socialism those urging economic reforms argued that the
money incentive needed to be put in the service of social goals, they were
actually speaking about the motivating power of the craving for status when
they insisted that incomes of people (who were in theory equal) needed to
reflect unequal performance to a better extent. The matter is, that higher
performance does not invariably mean more performance of a quantitatively
measurable kind. The performance of an astronaut is perceived to be greater
than that of an abattoir worker, or that of a housewife, although the first
produces nothing measurable in the material sense, while the last-mentioned
provides her services over a seven-day working week, the merit of which can be
recorded materially. However, in the record of merit our intuition is guided,
it seems, not by this, but by unconscious consideration of which performance is
the more excellent. This is why one
may find it in order for an astronaut to receive remuneration higher than that
of, say, a butcher decades after his performance, while the housewife, who
often continues her work until the end of her life, receives neither a salary,
nor a pension.
But remuneration
can be on a higher level without the payment of additional money: all
organizations establish a system of benefits whereby some employees are
favoured against the rest, the staff as a whole against those outside the
organization, regular customers against occasional ones, and even the totality
of customers is favoured against the whole population from which they emerge,
etc. Among the benefits are those whose utility can be measured in money:
grantees among the employees, and to a lesser degree all employees of the
organization may, in addition to their regular salary, be enabled to use items
of the organization's movable and immovable property free of charge or at a
concessionary rate; they may have access to services paid for by the
organization wholly or in part; regular customers might be given discounts when
using services offered by the organization, etc. However, the intuition we use
when bearing in mind the value of remuneration seems to be guided not primarily
by considerations connected to its size in terms of money, but by a weighing of
how distinguishing the benefit
bestowed actually is.
Higher-level
performances, therefore, can be rewarded through higher-level pay not only in
that more is produced according to
the paradigm of material effectiveness, more
is paid for it but also through remunerating a distinguished performance in a distinguishing
way. As a matter of fact, what is measured is no longer the merit of the things produced, but that of the person
doing the producing. Behind a distinguished performance our intuition suspects
a combination of technical powers that is distinguished, too, by virtue of its
rarity, just as behind the distinguishing remuneration it suspects a
person's distinguished social power. In such a case, remuneration by its distinguishing
power symbolizes status and, thus, drives people through the craving for
status, even when these people seem obsessed by a craving for money.
Around the time of the political and social changeover in Hungary, family
groups or friends
in voluntary enterprises within companies and in small
private businesses sometimes drove themselves at an inhuman pace not only to maintain
their standards of living or to be able to purchase goods
quite beyond the reach of the industrial proletariat and workers
in the catering industry, but at least
as much as to show how well they were getting on. For
them and for others too, how well they were doing was expressed in money or
in conspicuous goods obtainable with it. But it was not the absolute amount
that mattered, but its distinguishing character. Just as refrigerators or cars
were not (as they had been earlier) suitable for demonstrating how far one had
got, so in itself an enormous income would not have been sufficient incentive
to mobilize such energy, if everyone had been able to work with colleagues selected
by themselves in voluntary enterprises within companies, or in a small-scale
independent enterprise.
The same passion was described by Kornai as the inner
compulsion for expansion, when, at a time when the now-collapsed socialist system was still capable
of operating, he sought an answer to the following question: "What prompts
a manager of a company
under socialism to make investments or to accumulate capital when he has no interest in any profit
made?" The most important element
was, in his view, that "the manager
identifies with his own position. For such a manager there
would always be a basis
for comparison, in the light
of which his unit would
appear outdated or inferior. [...]
Managers felt a professional rivalry
in the best sense of the word.
They wanted to augment their
own professional prestige [...]. This could
be accompanied by motives perhaps
less noble, but nevertheless understandable from the human
point of view.
With the growth
of a company or public
institution came an increase in the power
and social standing
of its manager, and, together
with this, consciousness of his own importance. Directing 10,000 people feels
much better than directing 5000.
Greater power can bring greater
material recognition, more pay, bonuses
and privileges, depending on the system
of incentives in force."[23]
More exactly, what motivates managers
in such cases
is not so much the absolute size of the unit under
one's direction or the absolute
degree of that unit's expansion, rather the extent
to which those
index-numbers rank the person or his/her organization as compared to others. Kornai
concedes: “If someone
was appointed, let's
say, rector of one of the biggest
universities in the country, or was made responsible for the
protection of all the country's historic monuments, or was entrusted with care of the country's water supplies, then no increasing of either his salary, authority, or power would
result from his being able to secure
20 per cent greater investment for his sphere
of activity.” However
“the compulsion for expansion manifests itself at every
level of the economic hierarchy: from the leader
of a brigade consisting of a few workers to a minister
directing hundreds of thousands or millions of people. When the distribution of investment resources is on the agenda, all fight so that our brigade,
our company, our ministry gets the most investment possible.”[24]
A smaller
monetary increase might
be accompanied by a more powerful increase
in status. On other occasions a person might
simply give up the idea of getting
more money, because,
when the possibility arises, he favours
an increase in status instead.
On the other hand, sometimes a person might
give up a modestly paying
but excellence conferring office and be ready to accept the lower status
of competing with others on an equal
basis, if doing
so holds the promise
of higher income in the future.
*
Is it possible in such a case to calculate the increase in a status
someone must achieve
to offset loss of money,
or how much of a decline in status he should accept
for monetary gain?
Can an increase, or decrease, in status be measured at all? Can a twofold,
tenfold, or fiftyfold increase or decrease
in status be compared with a simultaneously occurring decrease or increase in money, in order to establish whether
someone has made a good or bad move when linking one to the other?
I am going to present a
(MOSI) which makes
it possible to calculate the value of outstanding social identity (VOSI) of a well-defined social status and the social
identity one may get by it.
The measure of
outstanding social identity applies the same logic by which the information theory
calculates the value
of the news about an occurrence that could
be expected with a p probability: as it is well-known this value is equalled to the logarithm of the invert
of p. Reference books
on information theory
point out that "when we want to express quantity
of information [...]
in numbers, we deliberately and consciously ignore
the content and significance of that information". Thus, "the answer
to the question 'Do you like cheese,
young lady?' [may]
contain [the same quantity] of information as does the answer given
to the question 'Would you like to be my wife, young
lady?', although the content and significance of the two answers are obviously entirely
different."
As regards the
VOSI, the same relation is valid. Certainly, the value of attaining a
favourably selected social position or avoiding a negatively chosen one is as
high as the stake it involves. Clearly, if a negatively chosen position is such
that it affects one in ten people disadvantageously, then the value of "That's
not me, but someone else" will be different, depending on whether someone
is about to hide in the next round of the "Hide and Seek" game, or a
commanding officer is decimating his unit. However, the VOSI depends not on the
substance of the stake, it is based on nothing but the formal relations. The
excellence is a surplus value gotten by the comparison: when one gets off with
a negative selection that would have affected not one in ten, but two, five, or
nine; or when s/he is selected to the more favourable not out of two but of ten
or a thousand candidates, or perhaps of total ten million population of
Hungary. The rapport may be stated as follows:
the smaller the pre-estimated probability of belonging to a favourable social position within
a population, the greater the value attached
to actually getting
that identity.
Let it be
N – the population;
a- – the number of those
in the population whose position
is inferior to mine
a = N-a- – a value
complementing the previous
one, i. e., the number
of those whose
position is not inferior to mine[25]
pa = a/N – the probability for anybody in the population to be among
this favourably distinguished part; hence
qa = 1/pa = N/a.
Finally,
the VOSI of my position
may be calculated as log10qa.
According to this formula
in the above decimation case:
N = 10 and a- = 1; hence, the number of those whose
position is not inferior to mine: a = 9; thus pa = 9/10; its inverse: qa = 10/9; finally, the VOSIl
of my position is: 0,046.
My VOSI may be defined by my position
in various ranks.
For instance, if in a population of N = 1000 I am the first
then
a- = 999
a = 1
pa = 1/1000
qa = 1000
consequently, the E-value
of my position equals log101000 = 3.
By force
of the same first place
in a group of N = 10:
a- = 9
a = 1
pa = 1/10
qa = 10
thus, my E-value is: log1010= 1.
If in the same population I take not the first,
but the second
place, then the corresponding calculation is:
N = 10
a = 2
pa = 2/10
qa = 5
hence, the excellence-value is: log105
= 0,7.
What happens,
however, if I am neither
first, nor second,
but share with someone else first and second places?
This position must be somehow
more excellent than a second
place occupied alone,
but less excellent than a non-shared first place. How can these
connections be reckoned
with?
The index
number expressing the difference can also be calculated in such a way that the
position is evaluated not only in relation to those on top, but also in the opposite
direction, to those
at the bottom of the population. For this, the procedure to be employed
is similar to that of Formula 1 above:
It is to be settled by
N – the population
b- – the number
of those in the population whose position is superior to mine;
b = N-b- – a value
complementing the previous
one, i. e., the number
of those whose
position is not superior to mine[26]
pb = b/N – the previous
probability for anybody
in the population to be among this unfavourably distinguished part; hence the inverse of pb:
qb = 1/pb = N/b.
Thus, a stigmatizing value of my position may be calculated as log10qb.
The stigmatizing value of being
the first equals,
of course, 0. For the 2nd place
in a group of N =
10:
b- = 1
b = 9
pb = 9/10
qb = 1/pb = 10/9
log1010/9 = 0,046
By force
of the same second place
in a population of N =
1000:
b- = 1
b = 999
pb = 999/1000
qb = 1/pb = 1000/999
log1000/999 = 0,000435
Finally, the summed up value of my position
may be obtained by deducting the stigmatizing value
from the distinguishing value: log10qa – log10qb.
This formula
then may be applied to our above
problem of distinguishing from the E-value
of both a first and a second
place that of the shared
with someone else first and second places:
the value log10b - log10a equals, respectively:
1. place:
log1010 - log101 = 1 - 0 = 1
2. place:
log109 - log102 = 0,95 - 0,30 = 0,65
shared: log1010
- log102 = 1 - 0,30 = 0,70
The medium
value for the shared position
is resulted from its a value being equal to that of the second
place and the b value to that of the first
one.
It is worth to compare
values obtained by the application of the MOSI with those
expected intuitively. Let's
calculate, e. g., the value
of the shared 2-4. place
in a group of N = 10, then the same value
for a population of N = 1000,
comparing those values
with those of both the preceding (1. place) and the following (5. place) position:
|
N = 10 |
N = 1000 |
1. place |
1 |
3 |
shared
2-3-4. Place |
0,35 |
2,40 |
5. place |
0,08 |
2,30 |
The difference 3 – 2,40 – 2,30 what we get for the values
in N = 1000 is much more moderate than the one 1 – 0,35 – 0,08 for the values
in N = 10. And this is what would
be expected by our intuition, the 5th place when N = 1000 being almost
as distinguished a position as the shared
2-3-4th place, while when N = 10 the difference between
the quite mediocre
5th place and the shared 2-3-4th one that is closer to the top must be
more significant.
However, economic
psychologists have known
for quite a time that there may be also a divergence between what is implied by the economic
rationality as calculated by a mathematical formula and the psychological intuition.
Such divergence has already been described by Bernoulli in the St. Petersburg paradox.
Allais took this a step further by describing the paradox named
after him. According to this, psychological intuition diverges not only from economic rationality, but also from a psychological rationality, which would
mean that the divergence from a mathematically calculated result could
itself be calculated mathematically.
The basis for the latter
calculation would be the expectation that psychological intuition is consistent. In contrast, Allais
found that the consistency assumed
by Bernoulli and his followers does not exist;
our intuition diverges
from the rational
differently in the direct vicinity
of full certainty (where it prefers
profit occurring at a greater
level of probability even when the aggregate sum of all the positive
cases is smaller)
than in the domain that is far from certainty (where greater profits
are preferred, despite
the fact that the aggregate is decreased by the small
probability of occurrence).
The measure of outstanding social identity to be discussed in this paper
aims to give an approximation of such a divergence of second degree:
from a degree rationally expected
for a divergence from rational
calculations. For this reason we attempt to trace deviant
intuition with subsequent corrections.
A difficulty is, for example,
that the differences resulting from the comparisons of the positions at the bottom
end of a ranking within
a group as calculated in the way given above
is not in accord with the estimates stemming
from our intuition. Namely, for such a calculation a population would
be symmetrical, where
differences between the rankings at the top of the scale should
correspond to those
at the bottom: in a group of N = 10, for instance, where
the values of the first
and second place
equal, as we have seen it, 1 and 0,65,
respectively, the values
for the last and the second last place would
similarly be calculated as -1 and -0,65 though
for our intuition the difference between
these places is smaller. In fact
it is more so in a population of N = 1000 where
for our intuition there is almost
no difference between
being placed as 999th or as 1000th.
Hence, a correction has to be done to the calculated symmetry, and the larger the population in question the most powerful
must be that correction. For such a correction we divide the stigmatizing value
by logN+1 (that
is, by 2 if N=10,
by 4 in the case N=1000 etc.).
Thus, the corrected formula is:
logpa - logpb/(logN+1)
Unfortunately, this formula is more complicated than the simplified one we have employed up till now; on the other hand,
it is worth looking at the following table and seeing
the values obtained
so far for the two populations examined.
Position |
N = 10 |
N = 1000 |
1. place |
1 |
3 |
shared 1-2. Place |
0,7 |
2,7 |
2. place} |
0,68 |
2,7 |
shared 2-4. Place |
0,375 |
2,4 |
5. place |
0,19 |
2,3 |
second last place |
-0,30 |
-0,67 |
last place |
-0,50 |
-0,75 |
In the figures indicating values we may get rid of a good deal of unwieldy
decimal fractions by multiplying all of them (arbitrarily but consistently) by 100:
Position |
N = 10 |
N = 1000 |
1. place |
100 |
300 |
shared 1-2. Place |
70 |
270 |
2. place |
68 |
270 |
shared 2-4. Place |
37,5 |
240 |
5. place |
19 |
230 |
second last place |
-30 |
-67,5 |
last place |
-50 |
-75 |
Can the MOSI be used, then,
in a calculation by economic
psychology to determine in dollars, Euros
or Hungarian forints
the price of excellence if somebody comes
first in a group of ten or shares the second and third place
with someone else in a population of a thousand?
We must admit that our method
is not adapted for such calculations: it can reckon
with social identity
only insofar as it is a relation, thus, also the value of an identity
may meaningfully be calculated only as related
to the one of another
identity.
Can then the MOSI be employed
to calculate the sum of money
worth paying for promotion from 9th place to 7th place in a group of a hundred
queuing up for something?
It depends. The
MOSI is adapted to reckon with those relations as related to their historical
antecedents.
E.g., if previously I have got to the 9th place from
the 13th one, then it may be calculated that thereby my
E-value got increased from 87 to 103, that is, by 16 point. Suppose that the work, money etc. I invested in this
performance amounted to 400. These
antecedents altogether (and nothing but these) define for me (and for nobody
else but me) the “dues” for 1 point of E-value increment as equalling to 25. Thus, we can answer the above
question: the E-value of the 7th place being 115, i. e., larger by 12
point than the 9th place, the monetary equivalent of this
promotion on such a background of its prehistory proves to be 300.
When using the
MOSI, it should be taken into account that among competitors, a missed effort
results not only in the lack of a rise in status, but also in a lowering of
status compared to competitors who in the meantime have made their own efforts.
If in the
previously evoked case I miss efforts to be done for acceding to the 7th place, its
alternative will be not the getting bogged down at the 9th place but a slipping back
in relation with those others who do compete. If such an issue ranked me only
at the next place to the background, i.e., to the 98,6 points 10th place, it
would change the price of getting to the 7th place, and for two reasons. First of
all, because my past investment of 400 points in the performance of getting
ahead from the 13th
place turned out to improve my E-value not by 16, but only by 11,6
points (from 87 to 98,6), thus, the equivalent of a one point improvement
proves to be 34,5 instead of 25 points. And, secondly, when my efforts being
done, as compared with their not being done, provides me the 7th place
instead of the 10th
and not the 9th place thereby provides me a 16,4 and not just 12 points growth
in the E-value. The summed up issue of this double shift is that the rise in
status at stake equals to 566 and not just 300 points. It follows from the
above that in neglecting to make an effort we pay not only by failing to get
on, but also by losing the position we have already acquired. This raises the
question of how much it is worth when this does not occur and when we can
maintain the position we have.
The measure of
outstanding social identity is suitable not only for rational calculation
concerning status and money, but also for predicting decisions regarding these
as they occur in reality. This is proved by everyday experience and experiments
in economic psychology alike.
In an (unfinished) experiment each participant received 1000 token dollars
and had to register out of a price list items that s/he intended to spend the
money on firstly, secondly, thirdly etc. Some commodities were chosen only by
three persons (out of 100 participants of the experiment), others by 41 people.
Each of the subjects got a summarized feed back from this choice of the
population, but this feed back was forged at a precise point: each subject got
informed as if the item s/he put at the head of his/her list would be chosen by
the first choice of 49 people.
Following this
procedure the subjects were given the information that a token warehouse, which
they can enter only one at a time, contains enough stock for a hundred people
to spend their money, but that there are only three of each type of item [8].
Thus, the order of the customers’ entry to the warehouse was rendered crucial
from the point of view of purchasing: only the first three shoppers could be
sure that they could get the goods they wanted.
After being
provided with this information, the subjects were given the opportunity to buy
their place in the queue, too, from their 1000 $ spending money: a computer
ranked the shoppers according to the sum of money they offered for the places.
Shoppers could improve their positions by increasing their bid, while similar
offers by competitors diminished the effectiveness of these increased bids.
In the first
round of the sale 20 out of the 100 subjects put 100 points, almost as round a
sum, 50 and 150 points was put by 10 people each. In this round the first place
would be procured by 170 points, but those two persons who bade 160 points
would get a shared 2-3rd place, while the above 10 people with their 150 points
shared the 4-13th
place, thus, the prices being almost the same while the places were
quite different. Hence, a pressure was very strong for bettering the person’s
offer in order to better his/her place or prevent him/herself from being pushed
more in the background by others’ overbidding. At the same time, lowbids got
still lower, since those getting for their 30-40 dollars last places realized
that they may have it for (almost) nothing as well.
In the meantime
the sale was restricted by the fact that the more a shopper spent on securing
full choice for his money, the less money he would have to buy the goods he had
freely chosen.
Instructions given
to the subjects indicated the rule whereby the final outcome of the game would
be fixed by the computer at the moment when no more shared places existed
between the players. When this finally occurred through the raising and
lowering of bids, it was very interesting to see that the ratios between the
bids closely corresponded to those proportions calculable on the basis of the
measure of outstanding social identity.
Prof. Laszlo Garai, Dr. Acad. Sc.
1.
After
World War I fundamental changes occured in the economic status
of human faculties and needs.
2.
Before
that shift, during the great – the 19th – century of its history the Capitalist
economic system might have afforded to consider only the material conditions of its running As to its human
conditions, effective mechanisms provided the system's functioning with a
maximal independence from them: the machine in a large scale industry set free the production from the producing
faculties of the population; while the accumulation process gets its
liberty from the population's need to consume due to the capital's property relations.
3.
As
far as the system's functionning still kept, however, some subjection to human
conditions, they were trivial, hence not created,
but merely extracted by the economic
system. Thus, both the practice and the mentality of the system were that of
exploitation[27]: human resources were treated as
something that is available independently from any economical efforts, as if
the profit that could be produced from it would be gratis, not brought in as the interest from a capital invested into human.
4.
Material
conditions were managed by the Capitalist economic system correspondingly to the modernization
paradigm: by artificial intervention into natural processes.
5.
On
the other hand, the modern dealing with material conditions was ensured by
investing capital that got increased when the product of that manufacturing
process was marketed.
6.
This
was so even when the investor into the manufacturing of an essential condition (e.g., into the development of networks of
transport or public utilities) was not some private person or company but the
state: such processes were financed not
necessarily from the citizens' taxes, but to an increasing extent from an
investment which became profitable when the state started to charge money
for the use of the given infrastructure.
7.
As
far as for the system's functionning some human conditions were, however, still
needed, they were trivial, hence, unlike material conditions, not
manufactured, but merely extracted by the economic system. Thus, both the
practice and the mentality of the system were that of exploitation [1]: human resources were
treated as something that is available independently from any economical
efforts, as if the profit that could be produced from it would be gratis, not
brought in as the interest from a capital invested into human.
8.
The mechanisms that enabled the economic system
during the 19th century to leave human
conditions out of consideration
had discontinued by the end of that century to be effective.
9.
Since
this switch the Capitalist economic system, its run being no longer
independente from human conditions, has got under the necessity to provide
them for itself the same way as it did with the material conditions, i. e., by
manufacturing them. From this time on, the practice of modernization evoked in
Theses 5 and 6 is replaced by that of a
second modernization which, together with the material conditions of the
economic system's functionning, will manufacture
the human conditions, too.
10.
From
this time on, the capital and work invested in cultivating faculties are as productive as investments into developping machinery.
11.
In
the period of the second modernization, any
human potential will yield profit only if the costs required to its production,
allocation, maintenance, running and renewal are really assigned – and this
assignation will no longer be prescribed by pious moral imperatives (well-known
to be either hypocritic or impotent in the ninetieth century), but by solid
business calculations.
12.
In
the light of these business calculations, one may no longer hold the formerly
evident assumption that costs assigned to the human would withhold resources
from the accumulation and put them to the credit of the consumption – instead,
human assignations will only regroupe
resources from one side of account to another: "A sizable portion of
what is termed consumption means nothing but investment into the human
capital", Theodore W. Schultz argues.
13.
For
such an approach, expenditures on education
has to be booked among the production
costs for the human potential, health
expenditures will appear as maintenance costs,
housing and transport allowances as costs for the allocation of the latter, cultural
expenditures as costs for the running of
these specific capital assets, and expenditures related to the management of unemployment will be regarded as amortization costs for the human
potential considered as fixed capital.
14.
A key
issue in human capital related calculations is to define who should be the
investor: be it the household of the
individual whose skills are developed by the investment; be it the enterprise who intends to apply the
trained knowledge, or be it the state.
15.
When
the investor is the state, a misinterpretation may be generated by the fact
that by this expenditure a kind of providence is at issue. Nevertheless, this
is not some Divine or humanistic kind of providence, but rather the pragmatism
of the good craftsman, who provides for tools before he would start working.
16.
During
the second modernization, in competition with the material and energy economy
an information management comes to
the front; in that information management the qualified man is as important a
device as the lathe for the material or the power plant for the energy economy.
17.
It is
immanent in the nature of information management that its factors become
effective in it not by each one's atributs
but by their relations to each other.
A particular person develops its communication potential only if
the correlated potential is similarly developed in other people as well: nobody
ever may have a capacity to communicate with others, e.g., in writing or in
some foreign language if there is nobody in his environment who has the
corresponding capacity to communicate in
writing or in that foreign language. Besides, the communicated information,
too, gets its meaning only against
its background, in correlation
with it.
18.
By
force of the previous Thesis, for an information management not only personal
attributes of individuals become economic factors but also their social
interrelations: equality and unequality, exclusivity and commonness, solidarity
and struggle for survival. Thus, what used to be traditionally factors of a
merely moral universe that was detached from the world of economy are turned by
the second modernization into factors for this very economic universe.
19.
By
force of the Theses 15 and 16 the output of the information management is
determined not only by the input but to a not (or not significantly) less
extent by externalities as well. As
regards such kind of processes, the natural attitude is what the economic
psychology calls free-riding. Hence,
the expenses of cultivating faculties according to norms of the information
management may only up to a rather limited extent be charged by market measures
to the individual's account.
20.
These inputs
and their outputs
can be managed rather in an organization which has the power to lay a charge,
impose certain share of risks
to the related individuals and counter-balance it not exclusively
in the market way. Such an organization can be, for example, the state.
21.
What
was put in Thesis 5
about state investment into infrastructural development will also be true for
the human expenditures administered by the state: the investment into the human capital will not necessarily be financed
from the citizens' taxes, but in various possible forms of a profitable
business enterprise.
22.
However,
if the investor into the human capital is the state (and so when it is a
company) the question of Thesis 12 will be supplemented by another one: Who profits from the employment of the human potential
produced by that investment?
23.
This
question is related to its twin question formerly evoked by the Thesis 12 by an
intermediating third question: who is the owner of the produced human
potential?
24.
The
issue of ownership has to be raised with particular emphasis because the
capital invested by the state or by a company into the formation of a person's
potential will be organically integrated in his body and mind, and will be
inseparable from the physical and mental faculties that were originally given
to him. Now, property means, first of all, power of disposing, hence the
question is put for the human potential whether this indecomposable neoformation is dominantly disposed
by the bearer of the endowments or by the owner of the money invested into its
qualification.
25.
The
questions raised in Theses 12 and 20 are supplemented by a further one: who profits from the human potential's
employment?
26.
The
correspondence of the answers to the three questions is only an abstract
possibility. Two formulations are known in which this abstract possibility is
realized:
if the interested
person invests his own savings into the development of his own skills and
abilities it is he himself who disposes over his own developed potentials, and
it is he himself who gains the profit of the accumulated capital;
if the totalitarian
state invests into the human capital it does it in such a way that it has
total control over the manufactured human potantial, and thereby ensures for
itself recovering with profit its money tied up in living persons.
27.
The
more highly qualified human potential is involved the larger and larger amount
of capital is required for its manufacturing – and, at the same time,
the larger and larger autonomy is required for that human potential's
running. This antinomy represents the
basic dilemma of the second modernization: as far as the required capital
is ensured by the involvement of a totalitarian State the autonomy turns out to
be in short supply – but if the aspect of the autonomy makes the State get out
from the human business by charging the costs of human development to the
individual's account then capital will be scarce (if only by virtue of ).
28.
Both
succes and failure of both versions of the socialism have been linked to
attempting to resolve that basic dilemma.
29.
In
its successful periode the socialism
by its Bolshevik version constructed a
psycho-economic structure that kept in operation (by joining in the Nomenklatura the status of the official and that of the commissary and by running a
self-establishing machinery of the democratic centralism) a peculiar processing industry whose final
mass-product was a rather peculiar version of the autonomy (the victim's
complicity)[28]; and
by its social democrat version it dealt with the
antinomy by adjusting the modernization's
interest and the socialist values in promoting in a capitalist State the
labour power as capital: the welfare State succeeded in the optimal
distribution of the capital's enlarged reproduction among the multiplied
material and the equally multiplied human capital.
30.
The
periode of the socialism's failure came about because
from the Bolshevik version everything but factors
directly and plainly serving the consolidation of power got extincted or
eroded;
the welfare State, being an investor into human
capital without being its owner or beneficiary (cf. Theses 12,
20 and 21), turned out to be unable to function
indeed (as it has been stated in the ) as a profitable business enterprise and
this experience reiterated the accusation that here again (contrary to what is
stated in ), resources are withheld from accumulation.
31.
The
failure of these socialist attempts established a claim for the neo-liberal
renaissance, although those attempts merely catalysed a trend that has not been
originated from them but from the compulsion referred at by the Thesis 8.
32.
However,
the authentically spontaneous functionning of a capitalist market aimed at by
that claim seems to supply a radical disposal of the dilemma: societies' new splitting in an élite and a mass at
this end of the 20th century. On
the side of the élite there is focused both the capital required for the
manufacturing of a highly qualified human potential and the autonomy that is
required for its running (cf. Thesis 24), and on the side of the mass there is
both factor's lack.
33.
In
this context George Soros' warning is particularly pertinent: “The main enemy
of the open society... is no longer the communist, but the capitalist threat”
34.
The
warning is pertinent in spite of (or just because) the fact that the new split
does not replicates the one that splitted the middle class during 19th century into an élite and a mass.
This latter was then compelled to participate in the production of assets from
the consumption of which it was eliminated (just from this discrepancy Marx
used to deduce his prognosis about a proletariat that is forced by it to
overthrow its basis, the capitalist system). By the new split of the society
the unformed mass is just as well eliminated from the production as from the
consumption.
35.
The
new split is a particular way for the second modernization to manifest the
force of its tendency for making the schooling a conditio sine qua non of the production.
36.
This
unprecedented elimination of the unskilled mass from the economy would be
enabled by the transformation of the material economy that leaved much room for
the employment of unskilled work into an information management (cf. Thesis 14)
demanding much less but qualified human resources.
László GARAI
Institute of Psychology of Hungarian Academy of
Sciences
The activity is a rather peculiar kind of commodity: one
may be willing to do it as a work against a wage or to pay a cost
against the favour of doing it as a game. The paper argues that the change
of neither the positive nor the negative price of the activity determines in an
unambiguous way demand and supply of this commodity: when the inconvenience of
an activity and its profit or the pleasure of an activity and its cost are
balanced a choice is taking place the issue of which is determined by the
person's psychosocial identity as symbolized — positively or negatively — by
that activity. The unmotivated choice evokes a cognitive dissonance and by this
means the price of the activity turns out to be effective psychologically
and not economically.
The main tendency of (both
planned and market) post-capitalist system is considered to be the production of personal (and not only
material) conditions of functioning of that system. That includes not only production of technical disposition to
master things but also that of social disposition to master (or, at least, be
superior to) other persons. These are as important an organizing factors for an
economic system producing its personal conditions as are value in use and value in exchange for the one producing its
material conditions.
Typical cases are cited
when the economic activity is not determined by the price of the thing produced
by it, but, rather, by the social identity of the person producing it.
A Marxian philosopher – the Hungarian
Attila József – argued in 1932 discussing chances of a planning system for the
necessity of an etatic collectivization of working people that he considered
the main part of the totality of means of production to be collectivized. At
the same time J. Hayek and other economists stated that planning is impossible
unless the state treats individuals as if they were means and not subjects of
production. They maintained that if the
individual as a subject chooses what to produce (what occupation to pursue, for
example) and also what to consume (what to spend his disposable income on),
this double choice will drop a grain of sand — an element of unforeseable and
uncontrollable chance — into the cog-wheel of the planning system.
This truth is easy to verify.
In theory, planning can be assumed to be
capable of reckoning with the consumers' needs and production capacities,
making sure that in a certain period the society should have approximately so
much capacity, say, for fruit production that may meet the consumers' demands for
fruit. Now, free choice intervenes and distorts this harmony so that fancy
spurs fruit consumers to satisfy two-thirds of their needs, for example, with
water melon, while the fruit producers feel like utilizing two-thirds of their
capacity in, say, the cashew plantations. The harmony between fruit production
and fruit consumption as established by the economic means is to no avail: for
psychological reasons there will be twice as many cashew nuts and twice as few
water melons as required.
In order to secure the planned harmony,
the state as the subject of planning is forced to designate, according to some
criterion, 1. the privileged category of water melon consumers, or 2. those
obliged to produce water melon (or both), and also to enforce through effective
measures both the acceptance of the criterion and of the attendant bans and
regulations.
Whereas — the reasoning continues — the
same achievement, namely the coordination of the consumers' demands as a
concrete manifestation of need and of the producers' inclination as a concrete
manifestation of capacity can be secured by the market instead of by planning
without having even those individuals who are left out of the privileged circle
or those who found themselves inside the handicaped category to degrade from being the subjects of
economic activity into its means. This in turn can be effected by the mediation
of the supply-and-demand mechanism in that the overproduction of cashew nuts
would reduce their price while the overconsumption of water melons would push
up the price of the latter. Then those whose preference for water melon is the
weakest would tell themselves: “After all, water melon is not that much better
than cashew nuts that I should stick to it now that there is such a big price
difference.” At the same time those whose negative preference for water melon
production is the weakest would realize: “Water melon production is after all
not so much of a nuisance that I should be reluctant to deal with it with the
wage difference being as large as it is.” And this price fluctuation would go
on until the reorientation of the consumers' demand and the producers'
willingness reached a point where equilibrium could be established.
Only, the psychological factor — the one
that motivates selection, for example — infects the system of market economy,
too, with a fundamental insecurity.
A commodity
without effective price
So that the market system could function
in the above manner, every commodity must have an effective price, one whose
reduction would indeed effectively reduce its supply and increase the demand
for it. Every commodity, that is not only every product but also that most
peculiar of commodities: activity. Its
peculiarity lies in the fact that unlike the product which I pass on in exchange
for money when I supply it and take into possession in return for money when I
demand it, the activity is always exerted by me, whether I supply it or demand
it. Also, the activity that I am paid for as work, and the activity for which I
am to pay as entertainment are identical as to their physical appearance but
antithetical as to their psychological and economic substance.
Be that as it may, in a
commodity-producing society work is only done when it is remunerated, and if
this price decreases the willingness to undertake the disagreeableness of the
activity for that much money must also decrease. On the other hand, we are
willing to continue with the entertainment even if we are made to pay its
price, but if this price decreases the demand to enjoy the agreeableness of
this activity must increase.
When neither the number of those who are
willing to supply the work-type activity nor the relevant length of time
decreases with a drop in the price of this activity, then this activity will no
longer have an effective price. Similar is the case when neither the number of
those who fail to resist the temptation of the entertainment-type of activity
nor the length of time increases with a decrease in the price of this activity.
Most probably the lower limit of the
effective price is over 0: it is presumable that there will be a price above
0 for which no one will be willing to do
a certain job or at which a certain entertainment will reach saturation level
so that further price cuts can no longer reduce the all-social time spent on
the former and increase the time spent on the latter. What is even more likely,
however, is that the price turned into the negative — that is, when the person
doing the work is got to pay tribute or the one supplying the entertainment is awarded a bonus —
cannot be the effective determinant of
supply-and-demand.
Nevertheless, both phenomena exist: I
described the former as the Tom Sawyer effect and the latter as the Captain
Puskas effect in other papers.
It is about the story of Tom Sawyer who passed on the job of whitewashing
the fence that was a punishment inflicted upon him to others whom he even got
to pay tribute to him — and this fact alone turned work into entertainment.
Just as entertainment becomes work the very moment it is paid for — as is
depicted by a statement attributed by the Hungarian people to the captain of
the famous football team of the “belle epoque” Puskás Öcsi who allegedly
reposted to a criticism: “Good pay: good play — bad pay: bad play”. One can
glean sociopsychological experiments to bear out the existence of both the TS
and the CP effects with the authority of science (see e.g. Deci, l975; Lepper
and Deci, l975).
Thus a rather odd function is produced for
activity. It reveals that if we are paid a sufficiently high price, the supply of
a particular activity will be high enough: we shall pursue this activity in
large numbers and/or for a considerable length of time because although it is
disagreeable it is worthwhile as it is gainful; conversely, if we are made to pay not too high a sum for the very same activity, the demand will be sufficiently high: we shall pursue this activity in
large numbers and/or for a considerable length of time, because although it is
a little costly, it is worth it as it is very agreeable.
And how does this function — too odd to be
one either of supply or of demand — behave between this two points?
No less oddly
If one is paid a sufficiently high price,
one will go on with the work according to the above, for although disagreeable,
the gain it yields is higher. On the other hand, commonsense would predict that
if one is not paid a high enough price one will not continue the work, for
although still profitable its disagreeableness is greater. What happens,
however, halfway between these two points where gain and disagreeableness are
just balanced?
Commonsense and closely related behaviorism can only repeat Buridan's
answer who, as we well know, declared
that his ass would starve to death between two equally apetizing bunches
of hay placed at equal distances from him as he was incapable of making a
choice. The cognitive dissonance theory
provides a fundamentally different answer.
According to this theory if the equilibrium of a cognitive system is upset
by the emergence of an X factor, the
equilibrium can be restored not only by a behavior which entails that what
is X no longer exists (as is claimed by behaviorism) but
also through a change in a cognition which entails that what exists is no longer
X. For instance, in a choice situation the
balance can be upset if out of all the stakes the one I choose as the end is
not larger than that which I must sacrifice as the means (e.g. the chosen
gainfulness is not bigger than the sacrificed agreeableness, or vice versa).
In order to restore the balance it
is not necessary that this
kind of interrelation
of the stakes should not
exist — it is sufficient that what exists should not be this kind of interrelation
of the stakes. In other words, it is not
necessary that the person should choose what
previously represents a larger value for him and sacrifice the
smaller value; it is sufficient that what the person chooses should be more
valuable and what he sacrifices should be less valuable for him subsequently.
Several laboratory and field experiments reveal that what a subject chooses in a decision-making
situation will subsequently be overestimated and what he sacrifices in the process
will be underestimated by him. (See for examples Aronson, 1976, and,
especially, Poitou, 1974, who considers situations ideologically evoking
individual's freedom as crucial in what he states to be the mere illusion of
cognitive dissonance).
Whenever a stalemate among the consciously
deliberated motives brings about the situation of Buridan's ass, certain
unconsciously working factors emerge which stimulate the individual to choose,
without a preconsidered motive, what he will subsequently justify to himself.
One such factor exerting a powerful
unconscious effect is the imitation built into social identity. It has nothing
to do with the physiological reflex of yawning when a witness to a yawn feels
the urge to yawn himself. The reflex in question is the one that makes sure
that in addition to the fact that
observer can class those behaving in a specific way in the same social
category (if, for instance, they grow cashew nuts they can be ranked among the
cashew-nut growers as opposed to the water melon producers even though X of them might be of the same age,
sex, religion as Y of the other
category), those who belong to a distinct social category imitate each other as
to the behavior that is characteristic of the category.
So do, for example, the physicians who
keep treating patients beyond the point from where this activity is no longer
more profitable for them than it is disagreeable (exhausting, nerve-wrecking
etc.). This is the point where cognitive dissonance enters and the upset
cognitive balance may be restored by the person subsequently evaluating the
activity exerted even for less gain as something that is not so disagreeable
that it could not be recompensed by this reduced gain.
Imitation built into social identity may
also be negative: often a person refrains from an activity lest he should
become similar to the representatives of the social category of which this
activity is typical. If, for instance, you
are reluctant — just because you are
not a window-cleaner —
to clean hospital windows
even if it earned you
more gain than it is
disagreeable, then cognitive dissonance will emerge again,
resetting the tilted cognitive balance so that you subsequently judge the
activity you did not undertake as
something so disagreeable that
even that much gain would be too little to remunerate
it.
So when it comes about that the price of
an activity-as-commodity — for example medical treatment — gradually decreases
against a background of a gradual increase in the price paid for another
activity, for example window-cleaning, what happens is not that individuals,
completely independently from each other, give up the activity one by one
recognizing that it is now less profitable than it is disagreeable and that it
is more lucrative to earn their living by the other activity, whereas exactly
this would be the precondition for the price to be an effective regulator of
supply (and demand) in the activity-as-commodity.
What indeed happens when the gain
obtainable through, e. g., medical treatment decreases is that it challenges
the individuals one by one to face a real choice. Even if each of them decided
to give up this activity, it would not be the realization of the related interest, but a choice, for just as much interest is vested in continuing the
activity, it being equally profitable and tiring at this point. The persons
facing a choice however — although individually their activity burdens them to
different extent, thus the decrease of the recompense challenges them to face
the choice in different moments — keep (perhaps unconsciously) their identity in mind with reference to one another, as, for instance, doctors, and not window-cleaners. It follows characteristically that the imitation,
whether positive or negative, built into this very social identity will swing
them off the dead center of the deliberation of Buridan's ass: the person goes
on doctoring like the other doctors do,
instead of cleaning hospital windows for higher pay. On the other hand, the
activity which one get engaged in even for less money will subsequently be
reinterpreted as less disagreeable, while the one refused in spite of more
money will subsequently be felt more disagreeable.
Naturally, the above outlined cognitive process cannot take the form of
reasoning in which the person, aware of the self-deception, would try to
persuade himself that something is not so disagreeable (or is much more
agreeable) than he has expected. Anyhow, when the social identity exerts its
effect via conscious deliberation and not an unconscious — positive or negative
— imitation, it never results in cognitive dissonance.
If this is the case, the person consciously reviews not only whether the
activity is agreeable or disagreeable, gainful or costly, but also weighs its
social significance, and his interest which he consequently realizes may make
him continue the activity even though he is aware it is less profitable for him
than it is burdensome, or less agreeable than it is expensive, for he is aware
that this is his duty to his social identity (“noblesse oblige”).
Such
calculations originated from
a sense of duty
may play a role in
questions related to production as
well as to consumption, e.g. when I consume cashew nuts not
because it is more agreeable or less expensive for me than the water
melon but because I
owe that to my social status. This phenomenon is usually labeled
with ideological disapproval as “prestige consumption,” seeking “status
symbols” and something that is generally typical of “consumer society.”
In sum:
a decrease in the price paid for an activity does not necessarily
entail a decrease in supply. When instead the number of those decrease who
consider this activity so disagreable that they feel forced to decrease its
supply, then this price is
psychologically but not economically effective.
The mind: epiphenomenon or factor?
From this it follows that the mental
constituent infuses a fundamental uncertainty not only into the planning system
but into the market system, too.
This in turn gives rise to the exigency
that the economic system, whether
regulating itself by the market or by planning, must apply a method of some
sort to handle the mental constituent. Those automatisms which are used to
make production independent from the producer, and in general the material
connections of economic life from the connections of the acting persons' mind
no longer function.
In my previous papers (see, e.g.: Strength and weakness of psychological
science. Int. Soc. Sc. J. 25. 1973) I
have presented the following aspects of the change in which the mental
constituent was transformed from an epiphenomenon into a factor of the economic
process:
In the first century of large-scale
mechanized industry the operation of the machine needed abstract effort and abstract control. By the end of the last century, however, technical
development had introduced mechanical equipment in the operation of which the
abstract effort had to give way to speed,
while abstract control got replaced by the coordination between reading various dials and operating several controlling
gears. Technical development simultaneously resulted in an increase in both the
speed and the complexity of mechanical equipment: due to increased complexity
the machine operator needed more and more
time to respond optimally, while due to the increasing speed he had less and less time to react quickly. Those persons who could coordinate these
requirements working againt each other had to be specifically produced.
In relation to this necessity there is a
tendency both in the planning and in the market systems in that the proportion in the society of those who
are not involved in the production of material factors but in the production,
maintenance and administration of the personal conditions necessary to
production is on the increase.
The rate of those working in non-material services rose from 27.6% to 30.2% of
the population of the United States between l969 and l980, exceeding the rate
of those employed in industry which dropped from 34.2% to 29.4%. This tendency is even more pronounced in Sweden where during
the same period the former index rose from 24.0% to 34.7% while the latter dropped from 39.8% to 31.4%. Though
at a slower pace, the tendency is gravitating in this direction in France, the
FRG, Japan and the United Kingdom among others
(Labour force statistics 1969-1980. OECD. Paris, 1982.)
As
the personal conditions of the
education which produces these personal conditions, of the medical care which
maintaines them, of all kind of services in general, of the administration of
public and private organizations in which these services operate must also be produced, maintained and administered, a chain reaction is generated in
that the rate of those who
take part in the post-capitalist social system of labor division as
suppppliers of activity and not
producers of things, is increasing at an ever growing pace. Consequently, a larger and larger
portion of money payments is rendered for activity, that specific commodity of which we have already
discovered that whether it has
an effective price or
not depends on
sociopsychological conditions.
Interestingly enough, this chain reaction is usually considered — if at all
— from its technical aspect only, accordingly to the paradigm of the material
production where one can put out more products with a machine than without one,
and if the product happens to be the machine itself one can produce still more
machines with it later, etc.
The transfer of this outlook from large capitalist industry to the society
is aptly illustrated by Zola's Vérité in which Marc the teacher brings
up his children just as most of his pupils to become teachers, who in turn
educate their children and most of
their pupils to become teachers after Marc's example, and these will do the
same again. So when Marc, having lived to the age of a patriarch, stays awhile
at the end of the novel in the circle of his children, grandchildren, great-grand and great-great-grandchildren
as well as his own pupils and those two, three, four removes away from him, he can be content that
his life was not in
vain because — behold
— the whole society
has changed.
In actual fact, however, one can experience every day in the practice of pedagogy
— even as a parent — that the same
technique works with varying efficiency depending on who applies it and to
whom: whether father lectures to his son or teacher to his pupils; whether a
parent drives his offspring toward the right path with a slap in the face or
an elder brother does the same to a younger; whether a mother pleads with her
daughter or the latter with a girlfriend; whether an instructor tries to
enforce discipline or a gang leader.
The necessity of the direct production,
maintenance and administration of the sociopsychological condition in
post-capitalist formations in order that either the price or the plan directive
should be effective is all the less avoidable because upon the above mentioned
technical process in that the independence of the material relations of economy
from the mental context of the persons involved ceases to exist, a social
process is superimposed which gravitates in the same direction:
Producing the personal conditions of
production required investment of capital just as much as the production of
material conditions did. Already Adam Smith ranked among the components of
fixed capital “acquired and useful skills of citizens” pointing out that as the
person has to be sustained during his bringing up, training and apprenticeship,
the acquisition of these skills always implies real costs; these costs are, as
it were, capital fixed and realized in his person. These skills, Smith stated,
constitute part of the wealth of the
person who has acquired them and just as much of the society to which he
belongs. The improved skill of the worker may be regarded from the same angle
as a machine which makes work easier and shorter, and although it requires certain expenses, it refunds them with a profit.
The condition of this refund is that the
person who invested should have disposal over the product, whether it is a
machine or a worker. Only, when the product is manpower, the body and mind of
the worker, the capital invested into his training becomes incorporated in his
skills inseparably from what is “inherently” there, thus, the investor can only
dispose of the capital if he has total disposal over the body and mind of the
worker.
On the other hand, we know that according
to the formula of capitalism the worker disposes of his labor power freely. To
extend this premiss to the developinging post-capitalist formation would mean
that he would be the one who disposes of the capital organically incorporated
in his labor power, too. This in turn would render the fate of the invested
capital to be highly uncertain for there exists a contradiction in which one
may detect the basic antagonism of all post-capitalist formations: notably that
the more highly qualified the manpower,
the larger the capital to be invested into its production and the more uncertain the fate of the invested
capital due to the autonomy which the manpower lays claim to.
The failure
of totalitarian states
This dilemma emerges when the
characteristic feature of classical captialism, namely that the capital and the
labor force are separated from each other and that capital simply purchases and
consumes the labor force but does not produce it, is done away with.
The first solution to the dilemma in world
history is what Attila József formulated in his thesis quoted at the head of
this paper: together with an etatic expropriation of the means of production,
in general, the state carries out that of working people, too, for the
capital goods to be expropriated are by then incorporated in the working
ability of these individuals. Attila József theoretically formulated what
was then already (and still) the existing practice of a post-capitalist
formation.
This practice solves the dilemma in favour of capital, similarly to the one
pursued by other post-capitalist formations without having established the
planning system for lack of expropriating the means of production by the state.
As is well known, in the present period there are several countries where the state
has intervened in the relation between capital and labor under conditions that
can be characterized by the above dilemma although the means of production are
privately owned and the market system is in effect. This intervention by the
fascistic totalitarian state, too, tries to bias the solution of the dilemma in
favour of capital by allowing for a supervision of the labor force which
provides guarantees for capital to recover with a profit the costs of “human
investment”
The totalitarian state, irrespective of
which variant is realized — whether the one with planning or the one with the
market system — restricts to a minimum the individual's possibility to choose.
But the individual's decisions, as has been seen, are the stumbling block for
the efficiency either of the plan
directives or the price.
In addition, the totalitarian state offers
complementary guarantees for the owner of capital (whether of private or state
property) in case individual decisions should happen to be made: it
manipulates social identity which we defined earlier in this paper as the
determinant mediated by positive or negative imitation of real choices made
in the balanced situation of Buridan's ass when changed circumstance will not
result in a changed behavior but in an altered experience of an unchanged
behavior. The totalitarian state manipulates social identity either by
extending the social category the individual belongs to to such an extent that
the totality of the society the state controls could be squeezed into it, or
by reducing the individual's social cathegory to such an extent that he finds
himself totally alone in it, face to face with the authoritarian leader who
can decide at any moment who of the atomized
individuals should belong
together and who should be
the enemy.
The totalitarian state, e.g. the Third Reich, attempts to achieve the
former with by the familiar method of treating that section of society which
falls outside the chosen category as something to be totally annihilated.
The latter effect is presented in Ervin Sinko's The novel of a novel, the diary of the author's long journey in
Stalin's empire (in l935-l937), describing a totalitarian state where the
atomization of society, which in the classical capitalist economy was only a
tendency — analized by Marxists and the most passionately hated by communists —
reached its perfection.
However, the totalitarian state has proved
incapable of producing the psychological conditions necessary for the operation
of either the planning or the market system for two interrelated reasons.
The first is that the above dilemma
entails another twin dilemma on the end opposite to that of the labor force in
the scale of the post-capitalist social structure. What happens here is this:
the position that in the classical capitalist formation is occupied by the capitalist entrepreneur is split into
two: those who have capital may lack the enterprise to invest it into ventures
promising profit, whereas those who have a knack for taking optimal risks may
not have anything to risk.
Capital
assest and enterprise — material and personal
condition, respectively, of the
operation of this economic system — must be brought together. But in what
structure? In one where the capital employs the entrepreneur (manager) as it
employs the worker and disposes of both? or in one where the entrepreneur takes
up a loan, pays for the use of the capital as he pays for the use of the land,
but he disposes of both?
The dilemma of the material and personal
condition is decided by the totalitarian state, whether built on planning or
the market system, again in favor of capital. Enterprise is a disposition which
means that someone has a different idea from everybody else's, without a
preliminary directive, to boot; and what could be the arch enemy of the
totalitarian state if not the citizen who has original and spontaneous ideas,
and, especially, if he even acts upon them.
Above
we saw how the totalitarian state provides
capital with guarantees that the “human investment” will be recovered, so this time it is the capital that
guarantees for the totalitarian
state that the spontaneity of
the enterprising person it employs will not exceed the strict
limits marked out by the technical directives of capital, and if he should
still do so, it will employ another person's originality in his place. It is
important that in this respect private capital, where surviving, can provide
the totalitarian state with the same guarantees as capital that is handled by
the state where there is state property.
It is just as important
to note that in the former case in the market system and in the latter with
planning the same observation
can soon be made: the enterprising spirit is missing. That
type, more exactly, the bearer of which would be such a person to whom
there and then would occur a different
idea from all others' without preliminary directives where and when the
technical directives prescribe it, and in whose place anyone who may at any
moment be put in his place would have an original idea in the same
way.
In his book The pyramid climbers
(Fawcett World Library. N.Y., l964) Vance Packard cites some findings of an
opinion-poll conducted by Nation's Business to find out what the new claims of
managers are, which brought out that the new
claim number one is: Be a creative
conformist.
The Palo Alto school has done a detailed investigation into the patogenic
paradox of prescribing spontaneity (see
e.g.: Watzlawick, Beavin and Jackson: Pragmatics
of human communication. NY: Norton, l967; and Watzlawick, Weakland and
Fisch: Change. Principles of problem
formation and problem resolution. NY: Norton, l974). The paradox of social
similarity and difference that is very closely related to that of vulgar originality has been investigated
in my paper entitled Les paradoxes de la catégorisation sociale (Recherches de Psychologie Sociale, l98l.
pp.l3l-l4l; see also Pages: Les paradoxes classificatoires de Garai: espace de
repérage et d'affectation. Ibid.,143-151)
The other reason why the totalitarian
state has failed to create the psychological conditions necessary for the
operation of the economic system is that it can only set about tackling the
task of producing the personal conditions
according to that logic which the post-capitalist system inherited from the
capitalist formation and according to which the latter produced the material conditions of its operation.
According to this logic a person carries
his properties just as a thing does, and these properties can be changed in the
same way as those of a thing can. If something or someone does not fit a goal
it can only be adjusted to it by a larger or smaller cost. The larger the
distance between the actual state of the thing or that of the person and the
goal, the larger the necessary input. Whenever I know the technology of
producing a thing or a person bearing a property a and that of producing a bearer of the property b I have only to combine two
technologies in order to produce something or someone that bears both
properties. Nothing can me prevent from changing over from the prototype to
mass-producing the model by the hundred, thousand or million. If the input has
produced the expected output, new inputs may multiply the outputs. The costs of
production are calculable, and it can be determined whether the production is
more economical if those to be involved in the technological process are
previously selected, if all the people are worked upon without selection and
everyone is trained as long as necessary, or perhaps if after a certain period
of time the waste is eliminated from among the unselected lot of individuals.
And the worst of these arguments, and of
the logic they are all based on whether in the planning or the market system,
is not that when you examine it consistently you inevitably end up with the
formula of the death or labor camp, thus, they are loathsome from a moral point
of view, but that they are no use from a purely pragmatic viewpoint, too,
because they neglect the most significant aspect of producing the personal
condition:
The personal condition complementing the
material condition of production is not necessarily present or absent as a
material feature of the persons but may also manifest its existence or lack as
peronal interrelation. The classic experiment of Elton Mayo (The human problems of an industrial
civilization. Macmillan, N.Y., l933) has demonstrated that the disposition
of a group of women workers to increase their productivity both when their
working conditions were improved and when
they were deteriorating was due to the fact that the management
distinguished them by its exceptional
interest. This, clearly, is not one of the material conditions of work like
lighting, temperature, ventillation of the workshop; neither is it a material
trait of persons like the IQ, reaction time or fingerprint.
If it was something like one of the
material conditions of work, management could ensure it as soon as its interest
in what the key working condition for productivity was had been satisfied,
whereas what happens is that as soon as this interest is satisfied, it ceases
to exist, although this very interest
is the looked-for condition itself. If, on the other hand, the factor at issue
were one of properties beared by the
person like a thing bearse its features, it would only be a question of input
and efficient technology to form this useful quality in each member of the
production unit. In actual fact, however, if really could be carried out, that
each and every worker without exception
became subject to exceptional
interest, then none of them would have any more this “property” which, however,
so basically determined their disposition to production.
There are two methodologies to produce the personal properties necessary
for production: l. selective quality exchange when those who possess the
particular property are selected from the existing staff and the rest are
replaced by those selected from the population according to this property; 2.
retraining each member of the existing staff until the required property has
been developed. It can be presumed that if the property in question is, say,
the sense of absolute pitch, it is more practicable to apply the first
paradigm, and if it is, say, competence in BASIC, then the second. It can however
be easily understood that neither of these psychotechnical procedures will help provide the personal condition in
the above example (to be the target of
exceptional interest by the management).
Let us now come back to that personal
disposition which, as has been shown above, is just as indispensable a
condition of the operation of the post-capitalist economic system as it is
missing under the relations of the totalitarian state: namely, enterprise. Try to
imagine that someone decides to produce this condition (the disposition of a
person to have original ideas spontaneously) according to the logic of
material production as outlined above. It is not hard to see that the more
sophisticated the organization producing this spontaneity is, the less it will be possible to produce
spontaneity in this technological process. Also, that the larger the output
capacity of the organization which is supposed to produce the originality of
the person is, the less it is capable of producing originality.
The emerging need of the production system
to re-establish the split position of the capitalist entrepreneur and the
failure of the totalitarian state to produce or select under the dominance of
capital the spirit of enterprise as a material property necessarily leads to
the only possible attempt that a person should emerge who has different ideas
from the rest of the people without directives in such a way that he does not
jeopardize the totalitarian state:
and this person is the
authoritarian leader in
whom the totalitarian state is incarnated.
Alternatives
to the totalitarian state
When the totalitarian states collapsed,
the “natural” or “logical” alternative was the democratic state formation which
treated persons as sovereign beings and not raw materials of transformation by
this or that norm, or objects that such transformations produce for capital.
The “nature”
and “logic” that became manifest in
this change were, however, those of
the totalitarian state for which, as we have seen, the personal conditions of
the operation of the economic system can only be produced as things, so
the handling of persons as
things cannot be got rid
of unless the question of producing the personal condition is radically removed
from the agenda. So the economic considerations could in no other way be
raised than in relation to the production and allocation of material conditions. As if the sole
question had been how to make production and allocation more reasonable: by a planning that controls the volume of the
value-in-use of things, or by the market that
does the same with their value-in-exchange.
While for both economic systems the
criterion of economic rationality is a
kind of material efficiency (the increasing volume of the produced
value-in-use, or the accumulating value-in-exchange) it is a global tendency
that the number of those employed in industry and agriculture, that is in the
production of material goods, is continuously decreasing: in the most advanced
private capital economies by the early 80s less
then 50% of the total labour
force was employed in this areas.
In the most advanced capitalist countries this rate was below half the
total labour force by 1969 and further dwindled by l980: in the USA from 38.9%
to 33%, in the UK from 46.9% to 39.4%, in Sweden from 48.3% to 37%. In the FRG,
France and Japan this rate fell below 50% by the beginning of the '80s. (Labour
force statistics 1969-1980.OECD.Paris, l982.)
And whereas the application of the paradigm
of measuring material efficiency in the areas of material services has at least
a use in that the merits of the individual can be measured in order that
society could accomodate to them the equitable
remuneration of the individual, in the spheres of non-material services (for
whose changing rate in modern society see note at p. 6) the measure of material
efficiency cannot be applied at all. It can be calculated how much larger the
merit of transmitting l0 million kwh electric power or cubic meters natural gas
to the consumer, of loading and unloading l0 thousand wagons, distributing l0
mugs of draft beer is than 2 million kwh or cubic meters, 2 thousand wagons or
2 mugs of beer. This calculation, however, cannot be applied to non-material
services for their stakes always include interpersonal relations which, as has
been pointed out, do not obey the logic that operates with the things'
properties.
To verify the general validity of the above argument let us take as our
example a representative of non-material services such as the boxing coach. Let
us suppose that he is in charge of ten boxers of the same weight category whom
he drills to encounter opponents fighting
in various styles. Using the paradigm of material efficiency one could
calculate how much smaller the merit of a coach is if he achieves the same result with only two athletes, let
alone the case when he does it with only one boxer. Only, there is no chance of
drilling two boxers in a realistic setting to perform against opponents
fighting in various styles, while a
single boxer cannot be trained even to hold his ground against a fighting opponent (for the sake of
illustration we disregarded the possibility of the coach entering the ring).
It is becoming more widely recognized in various branches of non-material
services that relations of this type must be reckoned with. The attitude of the
Palo Alto school toward psychotherapy is not to find the cause of a psychic
disorder in some internal property of the patient or in the material conditions
of his environment, but in the interpersonal relations within a social
structure (e.g. family): in that the patient differs from the others, or
contrarily, wants to resemble several people at the same time who are
dissimilar; in that he heavily depends on others, or conversely, keeps others
tightly under control, etc. In this way, if the illness as a material state of
the patient is eliminated without altering the particular relationship, it
happens more than once that another person falls ill within the given structure
(see Watzlawick, Beavin and Jackson: Op.
cit.; Watzlawick, Weakland and Fisch: Op.
cit.) Ironically, this relation may be conserved by the fact that someone
has made consistently for years his therapeutic efforts aiming change; at other
times the therapist's mere entering with the intention to heal the ill into the
pathogenic relationship is enough to really change it. Neither of these
cases are such that the merit of the
person supplying the non-material service could be measured by the paradigm of
material efficiency.
It appears as if the psychological
“irrationalism” corresponds to an economic “irrationalism”: the activity has
no effective price, and also only a dwindling ratio of it has such material
product that would have a price corresponding to its real value; what is
more, it allows for the merit of the individual who exerts the activity to be
measured and recompensed according to the paradigm of material efficiency to an
ever decreasing extent.
Nevertheless, there exist two interpretations
of this tendency in that an ever growing proportion of the total labour force
is not employed in areas producing
material conditions of production. One may interpret it as if in various
countries an ever increasing ratio of the GNP were used as the material
condition of consumption and not of production.* But personally I would argue for the following interpretation: this
growing rate produces the personal, and
not material, condition of
production.
The rationality of producing the personal
condition cannot be evaluated according to the logic of producing material
conditions. If one cannot establish for non-material services how much input
results in how much output by using the material standard measure, then not
only the above outlined dilemma (whether the capital itself or the produced labour
power will dispose of the product when the capital is invested into producing a
labour power?) remains unsolved. Similarly unanswered will be the following
traditional question: if the capital employs wage work to produce this special
product, namely labour power, in what proportion is the produced value shared
by capital and the producing labour
power? A third unsettled question is what the economic relationship is like
between the labour power that produces and the labour power that is produced
(between those teaching, curing, directing and those being taught, cured,
directed, etc).
These three questions refer to the very
basic relations of modern organizations of education, health care, administration, in general, public service organizations. These are the relations between the
organization's clients, employees and
those who dispose of the means of
human investment.
To characterize the economic relations
between these factors is theoretically impossible in the categories of material
efficiency. It is theoretically impossible to establish how much material value
is represented by the labour force produced by education within a definite
period of time, or by the labour force saved by medical treatment, or the
labour force pushed to (or prevented from) operation by the administration.
Consequently, it is theoretically impossible to calculate how much the labour
power of those doing the education, healing, administration, etc. is worth.
These calculations cannot be replaced by the knowledge that the annual
Hungarian state expenditure on a university student is Ft 66 741, on a student
in a technical secondary school Ft 22 515, in a vocational school Ft 16 732, in
a grammar school Ft l4 577, in elementary school Ft l0 536, for the actual question
is how much more (or
perhaps less) output this much
input produces.
Therefore, as a result, the only possible
point of departure for establishing the equitable wage for this kind of work
is to consider how much the pay is by which the supply and demand of services
is just balanced.
This
is, however, rendered impossible by the fact that this type of activity has no
effective price.
The measure
of production of human resources
An activity can be determined not only by
its utility expressed either in the value-in-use it has produced or by the value-in-exchange expressed in the price
paid for the activity. It can also be determined by the satisfaction which is also two-sided: from the manifestation of the
person's technical dispositions in
his activity which masters things,* and from the
display by the person of his social
dispositions in his belonging to social categories which master other
persons.
. In the latter case the stake that
effectively motivates the person's decisions is not money but status.
Vance
Packard was among the first to describe the phenomenon of seeking
for status (The Status Seekers. Penguin Books Ltd.) which seems to be becoming
just as general a passion of the man of the modern age as seeking for money used to be for people living under the
conditions of a classical capitalist formation. This change is also evident
in the fact that while the old craving
spurred one to procure the money, this new passion may prompt you to
spend the money you,
eventually, have not yet got but only borrowed,
and the kick you get is not out
of consuming the commodity thus
purchased according to its value-in-use but
out of the spent
for it money symbolizing status.
But money
raised can symbolize status, too. On such occasions, what we are interested
in in the first place is not between expenses
and income (for instance, between the
inconvenience of an activity and the reward for it) but by the difference
between our income and others' income.
In his classic experiment Tajfel has found that — depending on the context
of social reality — the subject may be prepared to regard the difference
between the income of the “ingroup” and an “outgroup” as more important than
the absolute size of the income of his own group even if the two “groups” were
formed along such a negligible dimension as the outcome of a manipulated test
“showing” which of two painters, Klee and Kandinsky, the subject allegedly
prefers and which one the other supposed subjects, whom he knows only by their
initials throughout the experiment, do. (Human
groups and social categories. Studies in social psychology. Cambridge
University Press. Cambridge etc., l98l; see esp. pp. 268-287).
It
has often been suggested as
one of the tasks to be done in connection with the economic reform in Hungary
that the levelling policy should be replaced by payments better adjusted to
unequal performances. One must realize that this “egalitarianism” has never
meant equally allocated pay and additional benefits of l0 million Hungarians, and
also that an efficiency wage will never mean keeping in evidence how much each and every of the
l0 million performances,
which are incommensurable for
qualitative reasons, is
worth to the society: in both cases
we are dealing with spontaneous or deliberately set up social categories within
each of which organizations attempt to establish some equality and between
them an inequality. Now, we ourselves do the same when, according to
established or just being established social categories (that may be, but
may not be the same as those kept in evidence by the organization), we exagerate our similarities and differences, respectively,
and, thus, we find that it is just to
have as much salary as X has but it
is unjust that Y's is as much too; when we find it natural that we earn three times
less than K but immoral that L has
a salary of Ft 5,500 against
our 5,000.
When we say that remuneration must be
equitably adjusted to performance, we have to take this into consideration:
The performance expresses the person's technical disposition: the richer the
variety of skills the person is in possession of, the higher performance he is
capable of, in general. Remuneration, on the other hand, expresses his social disposition: the higher a status
the person's social identity has, the higher his pay, as a rule.
But a higher
performance is not necessarily quantitatively measurable as greater performance: one feels that the
performance of an astronaut is higher than that of a slaughterhouse bucher
whose in turn is higher than that of the housewife, although the first does not
produce anything that could be measured materially, while the third provides
her services during a seven-day workweek and her merit can be calculated
materially as well. It seems however
that when one is considering merit, one's intuition is led not by this but by
the unconscious consideration of which performance is more distinguishing: this
is why one regards it as appropriate that the astronaut even decades after his
exploit may get a higher pay than the butcher, while the housewife who often
continues her services right up to the end of her pensionable age does not get
either pay or pension.
Neither is the only way for remuneration
to be advantageous when it is expressed in more
money: every organization develops its system of favoritism according to
which a part of the staff is favored as against the whole, the whole staff as
against those not belonging to the organization; the regular customers are favored as against the
whole clientele, the latter as against the entire population from where they
are recruited, etc. True enough the advantages include some whose utility can
be computed in money: above their regular salary, the favorably treated
members but, to a lesser extent, every employee of the organization can use
the objects of the organization's movable and immovable property free or at
reduced price, or can get services paid for them fully or partly by the
organization; for the regular customer some of the services of the
organization are available at a reduced price, etc. It seems however that our
intuition which keeps track of the value of remuneration is not basically
guided by the consideration of how much it amounts to in terms of money but how
distinguishing the procured favor is.
Thus, it is not only the larger remuneration paid for the larger performance in terms of material
efficiency that can adapt reward to the merit: a person distinguishing himself by his performance may get equally distinguished by his recompensation. In
this case it is no longer the produced thing but the merit of the producing person that
is measured: underlying a
performance to be distinguished our intuition guess a specific combination of
technical dispositions which distinguishes due to its rarity the
person who bears it and, in the same way, behind the recompense which distinguishes
the person we guess his distinguished social disposition.
The recompense you keep in evidence by its
distinguishing force symbolizes status; it drives people by their passion to
seek status even if outwardly they seem to be money-seekers: the fraternal or
family team of small enterprises, that reappeared recently or was newly created
within etatic large enterprises in Hungary, whip themselves to work at an
inhuman pace not only in order that they can maintain their living standard or
gain access to commodities that they could not even dream of when they were
industrial proletarians or employees in public services, but to show how far they can get when it is all
up to them.
How
far
indeed they have got is for them and for the others best expressed in
the material value measured by the money or goods he can obtain and show off.
Not, however, by its absolute size but by its distinguishing force: the fridge
or car, par example, that were in Hungary in the early 60s the most fashionable status
symbols are no longer suitable
to show where you have arrived.
As a rule, higher pay symblizes higher status. That the motivating effect
of the remuneration in question here is, however, that which it exerts via the
seeking for status is clearly revealed by the paradoxical effect of
underpayment upon the productivity of therefered to social category. It is
revealing of the kind of mechanism that works hear that a representative of the
underpaid category or an underpaid person within any category often proudly
complains: “Where would you find another idiot like me doing this job for this
money?” This is to express his
paradoxical claim that if the exclusivity of his performance is not
acknowledged by a pay that would be equally exclusive, at least the exclusivity
of that other performance should be recognized that he overworks even being
underpaid.
Kornai in his book of the planning system (Tha shortage. Közgazdasági és Jogi
Könyvkiadó. Budapest, 1980. In Hungarian)
describes the same passion labeling it the “internal pressure for
expansion” when he seeks an answer to the question that is crucial for the
economic psychology of this system: “What
may drive the socialist business leader to invest and accumulate real capital
when he is not interested in the profit?”
The most important element, he finds, is
that “the leader gets identified with his job.” A leader like this “can always
find a basis for comparison against which his department seems to be outdated
and poor. This induces the executive to experience professional jealousy in the
nice sense of the word. He would like to increase his professional prestige. To
this some less noble but completely understandable human motives may, or may
not, be added. Parallel with the growth of the company or institution grows the
power, the social prestige of the leader and together with this his sense of
his own importance. To direct ten thousand people is a greater thing than to
guide five thousand, most people believe. The larger power may entail a larger
salary and bonus, as well as more privileges.”
(pp. 204-205).
The key word here is the one I italicized.
Let us imagine a state of affairs in which Hungary would be divided into
administrative units of 5 000 people each. Now, let take a change that would double the population
of each unit. In this case no arguments could be adduced to verify that the
leaders of the administrative units would feel a greater thing to direct ten
thousand people than to guide five thousand.
True enough, Kornai declares: “When
someone has become the rector of one of the country's largest universities, or
is responsible for the conservation of all the monuments in the country, or is
in charge of the water supply of the whole nation, neither his salary, nor his
prestige or power will rise if he manages to obtain 20% more investment for his
domain.” But then he himself recognizes that “the interior pressure for
expansion is manifest at every level of the economic hierarchy: the the head of
a few-man-strong brigade to the minister in charge of hundreds of thousands or
millions. When it comes to the distribution of the appropriation for ivestment
every one of them fights so that our brigade,
our
enterprise, our ministry should get as large a share as
possible.” (p. 206).
Another thought experiment may lead us to realize that what motivates the
leader in cases like this is not so much the expansion of the unit he is in
charge of as gauged by the material yardstick as the distinguishing nature of the possibility of this expansion:
Which business leader would meet with the greatest degree of approval from
his staff and himself? The one who gets the adequate share of the investment
appropriated for a nationwide development of 20%? The one who alone manages to
clinch a 2% expansion possibility out of all the 100 economic units applying?
Or the one who despite a nationwide freeze on investment which is strictly
binding for 9999 out of 10 000 economic units still procures the investment
necessary for an 0.2% expansion?
Comparing this psychological factor to such economic ones as the necessarily strained nature of the economic
plan and the tendency of socialist
enterprises to stockpile, Kornai points out that, as compared with the
latter, “the interior pressure for expansion is even more momentous because its
effect upon the operation of the system is more pronounced” (ibidem), and
especially its effect in producing shortage,
what he considers the most essential phenomenon of a planning system.
To attach such a great importance to a
psychological factor in the operation of an economic system must be surprising
for the logic manifest both in reasoning either in favor of the market or the
planning system. Yet it very logically fits the basic feature of
post-capitalist economic systems which the present paper has described:
notably that they have to produce their
personal conditions just as the classical capitalist formation had to produce
all the material conditions for its operation.
The training of personal
conditions in service organizations of various types is a process at whose idealized
beginning one finds completely untrained, thus in
their role interchangeable, persons while at its idealized end one finds persons who are
irreplacable in the role for which they have been specifically trained, or which
has been shaped to fit the trained
specificity of the person.* One can therefore accept it as an idealized tendency that the status which indicates how irreplacable the
incumbent of a specific role within the organization is the measure that shows how
far the person has progressed in being trained as the personal condition of
the operation of the economic system.
In 1922 Max Weber (1964) claimed the bureaucracy to be, according to all
experience, the most rational form of domination for both the master and those
mastered; the „bureaucratizationÓ or „dilettantizationÓ of management Weber
considered to be the only alternatives to choose from, bureaucracy having the
overwhelming superiority the source of which is professional competence made
completely indispensable by modern technology applied in the production of
goods and by economy as a whole, irrespective of the fact whether it is
organized in the capitalist or socialist manner; this latter solution, Weber
went on, would imply an enormous increase in professional bureaucracy if it
should aspire at the same technical performance.
Today we can infer
from the experience accumulated since 1922 that the „socialist solution” did
imply an enormous increase in bureaucracy. No one would, however, associate
this tendency with the most rational form and with the performances of modern
technology. Quite the contrary.
What has happened?
At around the same
time as Weber made his statement, Schumpeter (1971) pointed out that capitalism
was transforming so obviously into something else that he considered not the
fact itself, merely its interpretation to be a point of contention: whether
what capitalism transformed into after World War I and the ensuing revolutions
and counter-revolutions was socialism or not Schumpeter considered only a
matter of taste and terminology (pp. 41-43).
In my earlier
investigations (Garai, 1987a) I was led to the conclusion that the essence of
this transformation is: the 19th century classic capitalist socio-economic
system produced the material factors it depended on and made itself independent
of the human phenomena which had not been produced by it. On the other hand,
from the turn of the century onwards running the socio-economic system was no
longer independent of the faculties and needs effective in the population
and, consequently, it faced the necessity of manufacturing also its own human
conditions.
The case of the
economic rationality itself
Is man reasonable? Are
his economic preferences reasonable?
It is obvious that
when playing, one does not choose an option which requires the smallest
possible effort or promises the largest possible amount of useful products,
hence his activity cannot be qualified economically reasonable. The same must
be true to the case when he wants to make A happy or to alleviate the misery of
B, so he presents A or helps B not with goods of lowest possible value and not
requires the highest possible price for it (he may even actively avoid
situations in which the beneficiary wishes to pay for the gift or help). It
hardly needs any explanation how economically irrational the behaviour reported
in growing number as vandalism is: when one destroys material values without
using the destroyed structures as base materials for constructing new goods and
without facing the necessity of destroying them as obstacles to his endeavour
or as amplifiers of concurrent endeavours. The purely economic irrationality of
continuing wars when stalemated, of running embargo lists, etc., go beyond the
everyday „pathology” of any individual behavior.
May the psychologist
faced with cases like these assume that man by force of his rational nature
adopts this kind of behavior only as a roundabout way through the mediation of
which the final output will of higher value than the total input?
Behaviourist psychology did try to put
the matter in these terms. By contrast, cognitive psychology describes man not
so much as a rational but as a rationalizing being: not one who creates by all
means larger output from smaller input, but who will subsequently consider what
he has produced more valuable than the price he paid was.
Anyhow, rationalizing
practices are promoted by the fact that in many cases input and output cannot
be unambiguously correlated. The extent of individual effort and that of the
satisfaction of a need are subjective dimensions, one can easily establish
between them the relation to his taste. If we want to judge objectively the
rationality of this relation we encounter questions hard to tackle. It is
obviously reasonable to increase threefold
the work done if it results in a fourfold increasing of produced goods; and it is obviously
unreasonable to accomplish this multiplication of work if it results only in a
twofold multiplication of the pay. But
does the unreasonability of this latter feature get changed if getting at all
involved in a job implies such a social devaluation that is independent from
the exact quantity of that work done?
The computation of
marginal cost and profit seems to provide an answer, but only at the expense of
giving up all normative considerations on the economic rationality and
regarding the choice of each particular individual as reasonable: one who is
willing to spend some marginal cost in hope of certain marginal profit is seen
as rational, whether he measures his cost and profit by the volume of goods,
that of money, the length of time spent on the activity or that of run in a social evaluation
hierarchy. And one who is unwilling to do so is also reasonable from his point
of view.
In order to judge the
rationality of this very viewpoint, one would first of all need an objective
measure against which the decisions of individuals concerning marginal cost and
profit could be compared to define, e. g., what is the real extent of the extra
cost or the extra profit that corresponds to a given surplus of a given
activity.
Such an objective
measure would be all the more necessary as both behaviourist psychology in
positing rational behavior and cognitive psychology in positing rationalizing
practices start from one and the same attitude in people. It goes (without any
obligatory awareness of it) something like this: „I'd be a crazy fool if I did
an activity that I feel more burdensome than profitable”. From this point
onward one may reason alternatively. For a behaviourist-type thinking: as I
am no fool, given a burdensome activity I refuse to go on with it. And for a
cognitivist-type thinking: as I am pursuing an activity, I won't feel it that
burdensome in order not to take myself for a fool.
Is there really an
objective measure the application of which might decide in each particular case
whether I really feel a certain activity burdensome or I actually take pleasure in another?
Specific human basic
need
One could come closer
to the distinction of „real” and „fictive” feelings, if he was able to class
human needs into „natural” and „artificial”, or „normal” and „abnormal”
categories. This would enable us to assume that if the positive or negative
feeling we reckon with in a decision about marginal cost and profit concerns,
e. g., subsistence, than taking it into account is rational, if however it
concerns, e. g., drug abuse, it is only a subsequent rationalizing of a
previously formed practice.
In the introduction to
my monograph (Garai, 1969) on the specificity of human needs I discussed in
detail how arbitrary the result of classifying the factors that inwardly determine
humane behavior in terms of such differentiation is. This differentiation is
opposed to the anthropological fact that Marx wrote about that production does
not only provide material for the need, but also provides the need for the
material, it does not only produces an object for the subject, but also a
subject for the object. By force of this
anthropological fact it is in principle impossible to make a distinction between
what every „normal” person needs „by his nature” and what he developed in
himself in an „abnormal” way or he was „manipulated” to have as a need.
In a Stalinian period
this arbitrariness had more grave consequences when it was the basis of a
practice of economic planning in which a central power was to have seen to the
„normal” needs of the members of society. Departing from this the plan was
expected to define production which was meant to satisfy this „normal” need to
a growing extent and, on a final view, in its totality. This basic ideology was
closely related to the practice of the central power of that period of seeing
to what it deemed „abnormal” among the needs of the individuals and get them
eliminated.
Jean Baudrillard
(1982) argued that man has no biological needs at all. The so-called primary
needs that are alleged to strictly
determine consumption required for satisfying them, as well as the secondary
needs allegedly defined by culture in such a way that satisfying them is up
to the individuals, are both merely ideological alibis of a consumption whose
primary function is to hide, or conversely, to emphasize by means of consumed
goods the social differences between the class
having and the one excluded from power in production. Consumption is
determined by production and production, in turn, means first of all the
production of surplus. Thus, Baudrillard states, what actually happens is not
what is believed to happen on the basis of ideological appearances, namely,
that the members of society consume the biologically indispensable subsistence
minimum and what remains becomes distributed as surplus. He asserts that each
society produces according to its structure a surplus as allowance of some
positions in the structures and what remains extra will be the necessary
consumption accorded to other positions of the structure as a „strictly
determined subsistence minimum”.
This context may
include both that a part of society should not be reproduced but left to
perish, or even actively eliminated, and that the non-optional „subsistence
minimum” should also include goods without the consumption of which biological
existence can be sustained but a human, that is social, existence relevant to
the given social structure cannot. „Today the subsistence minimum is the
standard package, the prescribed minimum consumption. Below this, man is
asocial Ń and is the loss of status, the social non-existence less
grievous than starving?” (Baudrillard,1982; p.86). This is how the
refrigerator, the car, the washing machine and the TV set got included in the „index of conformity and prestige” in
the west-European type societies in the sixties. Baudrillard means by index a
list implying a moral command. This prescribes a well defined usage towards all
the articles put on the index: for instance, refraining from reading books on the
Index or destroying them; or, in our case, the purchase of commodities on the
index. Thus, the object which one gets hold of and uses as such and not as a
practical technical gadget, will be a „franchise, a token of special
recognition, legitimating” (Baudrillard, 1982; p. 45.).
Having conceded to the
impossibility of defining generally specific
human needs (i. e., what
differentiates all men from all animals in this respect and at the same time
likens all men to one another) as regards their material, I made an attempt in
my above-mentioned monograph to identify them by the form that is manifest in
each instance of human need.
The form, in
accordance with Leontiev's (1983) theory, I found in the structure of
activity. Leontiev assumes that during the phylogeny the psychically
controlled activity becomes more and more complex and this fact is only
reflected by the development of the structure of the psychic performance of
controlling it. I have based on Leontiev's hypothesis a further assumption on
the genetically specific basic need: at each specific philogenetic level the run of an activity structured according
to that very level is needed.
Thus, even at the
bottom level of phylogeny instead of postulating several needs urging man to
consume various materials indispensable for subsistence it would be more
appropriate to consider an only basic need aimed at the activity of procuring
such materials. This need starts to mobilize when the animal identifies by
means of some signs one or another of these materials present in its
environment and then the ant or bee, for instance, begins its collecting
activity even if its organism is actually saturated with this very material.
Accordingly, the satisfaction of the need is not the result of incorporating
the material in the organism but the successful running of the activity that
puts the individual in possession of the object containing the material.
At further levels of
the phylogeny of animals the objects determining the activity structure
include, in addition to the goal to be
attained, the obstacle that blocks its run toward that goal and later the
tool that helps overcome the obstacle
blocking the path of the activity moving towards its goal.
Man's activity
inherits all these structuring factors. Kurt Lewin has discovered and his team
verified in several experiments that whenever the intention of an activity
presents itself in a person, it operates like a need as long as it is active.
This quasi-need is an inner tension that
drives to a definite activity and in the field of this activity it marks
certain objects as goals for the activity, others as its obstacles or tools,
respectively. It follows from Lewin's theory that in order to understand what
a person feels and does one must know, not what is the material that
corresponds to his/her real need, but what is the form that corresponds to his
quasi-need. Someone's intention to get bread for living and another person's
to get a concert ticket may be driven by
their decision to identical behavior (e. g. queuing up, if the obstacle in the
way to attain their goal is the gulf between supply and demand).
Human activity turns
out to be structured in such a way that in addition to the inherited goal,
obstacle and tool it includes a fourth structuring factor: taboo. Taboo is
basically a ban to use something as a tool to overcome the obstacle in the way
of the activity moving towards its goal, even if the factor in question were
otherwise technically adequate. The impact of the taboo is most frequently
connected with property relations: the technically adequate tool is as such
coordinated to another position, so its
use by people occupying the given position is prohibited by taboo.In this sense
taboo is complemented by Baudrillard's social allowance (prestation sociale)
which have people feel pressure to get certain objects without needing them as
technical tools, merely because they are allowed to possess these objects while
others are not.
Thus, taboo becomes
one of the structuring factors of human activity. Hence, what is needed for the
man's genetically specific basic need is the run of an activity making for his
goals, overcoming the obstacles of this advancement, getting tools for it and,
finally, mastering taboos on prerequisites of this activity.
Lewin's theory
specifies the formal correlations of such a need in a time interval when the
goal is already set but is not yet
attained. Neither before setting nor after attaining the goal exists the inner
tension which as quasi-need qualifies certain objects in the activity field as
goal, obstacle or tool, respectively.
As regards taboo,
Lewin mistakenly places it in the same category as the obstacle when points out
that a person's manoeuvring room is delimited by the domains of inaccessible
activities, such as shooting down an enemy or doing an activity beyond his
capacities. But the obstacle that limits man's possibility of pursuing an activity beyond his
capacities. and the taboo that limits his freedom to shot down his enemy are not of equal
quality. The former disable us to attain
the goal, while the latter disables us to set it at all.
The hypothesis of the
specific human basic need (SHBN)
assumes, in addition to Lewin's quasi-need urging for the attainment of a set
goal, another inner tension that emerges when man has attained his goal but
not set a new one yet. This tension may
also be conceived as a quasi-need that is satisfied by the setting of newer
and newer goals. Setting new goals occurs in the wake of social changes which
repeatedly reveal that the customary allowances and taboos no longer suffice
to orientate man unambiguously in his activities. Taboos therefore have a major
role in the emergence of new goals.
The specific human
basic need and economic rationality
Let us take an
infinitely schematized example to illustrate the above argument. When applying
this example I claim by no means, of course, to demonstrate how the
psycho-economic processes it is referred to run their course. It is only meant
to illustrate at an abstract level the relation in that the attainment of the
goal of enlarged reproduction results in a product to which the taboo fixing
the old relations of distributions refers ambiguously, and this is what arouses
the new tension that is, in turn, reduced when one makes the situation
unambiguous again by setting a new goal.
Let us assume that at
the end of a production cycle the product worth $100 is distributed between the
capitalist and two workers so that the former gets $80, the latter $10 each. If
this state of affaires prevails for a longer period of time over several
cycles, then it will appear to both parties to belong to the normal, natural
order of things that |1| 80% of the
product is taboo for the workers and 20% for the capitalist; and |2| a
capitalist's allowance is 8 times as much as a worker's. These two „rules of
game” are, in fact, the formulation of one and the same rule in two sets of terms: that of the taboo
and that of the allowance. If this arrangement of distribution gives room for
the enlargement of production, this latter's dimensions will, however, remain
for some time below the threshold value which is indispensable for the change
to be perceived. So the change may remain unnoticed, for example, when the
capitalist employed twice as many workers producing by means of
proportionately enlarged material conditions of production $200. Then,
according to one interpretation of distribution order, 20% of this remains
taboo for the capitalist and the residue of $160 he will claim as his
normal allowance. The workers, on the
other hand, will continue to observe it as a natural way of distribution that they are allowed 8
times less than the capitalist is. Under the new circumstances this rate is
established when they regard the $130 remaining after the deduction of their
slightly less than $17 each as taboo for them. Thus, in this schematized
example one party claims nearly $30 more as his allowance than what the other
party regards as taboo for him. Before either side notices that things have
changed.
When the actors of
production do realize the change, they will set new goals to their activities
in the gap between taboo and allowance: either one will set for his activity
the goal to prevent the change for it is disadvantageous; or else he will set
the goal to promote the change actively for it is favourable. The hypothesis of
the specific human basic need spells out that it is the SHBN that drives people,
according to its purely formal relations and not one determined by the required
materials, to such setting goals, as well as to attaining them.
Now, what determines
whether one sets as his goal the prevention or promotion of the perceived
change? It seems to be only too obvious that his interests must be decisive,
and those from a Marxian position may precise that the relevant interests of
individuals are determined by the class they belong to: whether they belong to
the class for which the change is favourable or to the one for which it is
disadvantageous.
Considering the
desirability of change in terms of class interests, the following inferences
can be drawn from the above example: If the status quo ensures that 80% of the
output be the allowance of the capitalist but the on-going change threatens
that nearly $30 of the amount calculated may be distributed among the workers,
then this will make the workers interested in the change and the capitalist
counter-interested.
The same conception
may, however, be applied to the same case in an opposite way: If the state of
affairs only places for the workers the eightfold of their wage under taboo and
the on-going change threatens that the capitalist may increase his income
calculated accordingly by some $30 to the detriment of the workers, then this
will make the capitalist interested in the change and the workers
counter-interested.
In addition to the
instances schematized above in which one of two antagonistic social categories,
animated by one and the same ideology, is interested and the other is
counter-interested in some change, the history produces from time to time its
inverse: those categories, animated by antagonistic ideologies, manifest
themselves as equally interested or equally counter-interested in the outlined
change. This latter was the case, e. g., in the inter-war period when both the
communist and the fascist ideologies animated movements for the radical
transformation of society. It is only too probable that in the actual history
of socialist countries their utmost rigidity may be understood if we take into
consideration that opposed in them to each other social categories animated by
opposed to each other ideologies may equally turned against social changes.
In other writings
(Garai 1985, 1985a) I discussed some observations stating that the inner
tension of the Lewinian form when one tries to get the set goal and the reality
closer to each other may be reduced either by a rational practice that brings
reality closer to the set goal or by
rationalizing practices of bringing the set goal closer to reality. And it has
turned out now that the tension of this other form of proceeding from the
attained goal toward setting a new one may equally be reduced either by a goal
of promoting or by that of reversing those changes already set off.
This doubles the
dilemmas of SHBN. Can it be decided which tendency represents rational practice
and which represents rationalizing practices? As long as operationalizing a Yes
answer has not been achieved, we can assert that the SHBN as an anthropolical
fact does not seem to drive more to a rational behaviour than to a
rationalizing cognition.
Hence, no economic
system can count on rationality as given anthropologically and if it needs
such a human condition for its operation, it must produce it by a planed
intervention in spontaneous behavioural processes.
Why is bureaucratic
control over economy not that rational?
L‡szl— Garai
Institute for
Psychology, Hungarian Academy of Sciences
Likewise but also
otherwise. In fact, to understand and handle this otherness is what calls for
economic psychology.
In the course of
producing the material conditions we get accustomed to the applied means' power
depending on nothing but their technical properties. In the production of personal
conditions, however, the means' power is mediated by their social relations.
This mediation
intervenes even into the simplest material factors' power over personal
factors. For example, whether pork is suitable as an instrument to contribute
to the subsistence of a human organism is determined by the chemical properties
of the foodstuff in question and by the biological properties of that other
material factor represented by the individual human organism. But whether this
material is food at all for some persons depends on how these personal factors
are defined by the system of their social relations: if, for instance, a person
is identified by his everyday social practice as a member of a Judaic or Moslem religious community
pork cannot be identified as food for him/her. And for lack of such a social
identification, the appropriate technical power cannot be exerted. What is
more, should this material stuff at issue get into the organism of such an
individual, it might as well generate the most serious symptoms of poisoning
without any appropriate technical power for this effect. Such a context
explains the power of various ancient and modern fetishes that a material
factor even without appropriate technical properties may exert an effect solely
by virtue of the position it occupies in the system of social relations: we
know, e. g., that Marx attributed to such a correlation the effect exerted in
the capitalist society by things working as commodity, money, capital, etc. on
persons working as agents in the economic processes.
If the power of a
thing over a person may be ricochetted by the position the person and the
material factor occupy in the social structure in relation to each other, this
is far more likely to happen when the power over a personal factor is exercised
not by a material but by another personal factor. It is common experience that
a technique functions with varying efficiency depending on the social identity
of the person who applies it and the one it is applied to: whether father lectures
to his son or teacher to his pupils; whether a parent drives his offspring
toward the right path with a slap in the face or an elder brother does the same
to a younger; whether a mother pleads with her daughter or the latter with a
girlfriend; whether an unknown outsider invites a person of the opposite sex to
strip to the skin or an unknown white coat doctor.
Now, from a
psychosocial point of view we might interprete the bureaucracy's system of
relations as the institutionalization of such relations: it assignes definite
powers to a position in a social structure, but to a person (whether s/he
bears or not technical properties needed for exercising those powers) only to
the extent to which s/he legitimely occupies the position in question. Thus, those
psychosocial interrelations are institutionalized by the bureaucracy that
mediate the power of producing personal conditions. Therefore, while we can
see that Max Weber's reasoning about the bureaucracy creating the conditions
of a rational management and the predictability of the mass scale production
and allocation of material conditions does not seem to hold true of socialism,
we have to consider whether it is not precisely the needs of managing the mass
scale production and allocation of personal conditions that could be blamed
for the extensive bureaucratization of society.
The following relation
should also be considered in this context:
If it is important in
the economic process in which personal factor produces personal factor that
the producing person can only exert his/her power through the mediation of
his/her social relations, then it is just as important that the produced
person's power be directly set to him/her as his/her technical property. But
how could we fit the two aspects to each other?
In the post-capitalist
era we can notice the repeated emergence of tendencies that Ń in an
explicit or implicit, aware or unaware way Ń oppose themselves to
bureaucracy. Despite all their differences
that are sometimes mutually exclusive they have in common the attempt
to set power to persons directly, independently of the positions occupied by
each of them respectively.
This tendency
manifests itself, e. g., in the radical mass movements of various orientation
after World War I: it was not accidental that these movements produced
everywhere the charismatic leader who proved to the combattants of the movement
that one does not need to occupy any social position in order to have an
increasing social power. Indeed, when, e. g., Gandhi resigned in 1934 of his
post as party chief, it did not reduce at all his social power; neither was the
position of head of government they occupied the source of their enormous
social power for Lenin, or, on the other hand, for Hitler and Mussolini.
Similarly to the
leader, the whole headquarters staff of a radical mass movement may acquire
charisma, and also this collective charisma sets directly to its bearer a
social power. Thus, a set of powers comes to be assigned to a group of persons
in such a way that both the bearers of charisma and those under the effect of
the charisma find it legitimate no matter who is the person and which is the
power set concretely to each other.
In the same way, a
whole political party may gain collective charisma in a revolution this party
is the vanguard of. At the beginning, the members of the charismatic collective
exercise the overthrown and sized power not as functionaries but commissaries.
What happens is not that some party members begin to replace former functionaries
in the positions of the bureaucratic structure in order to obtain the powers
set to that position, but that one or another party member gets direct
commission to exercise a certain power.
Later, of course, when
the new power gets stabilized as state power, the principle of bureaucracy
gains ascendancy: those commisioned to exercise certain powers become
gradually appointed to positions with those powers as their functions. What's
more, with the development of the party apparatus the principle of bureaucracy
also penetrates into the party: e. g. five years after the Russian revolution
15,325 functionaries were active in the apparatus of the party, and another 15
years later only at the intermediate level there were about three times as many
party functionaries.
In respect of the
above formulated question of economic psychology, i.e. how to fit the two
aspects of producing the personal factor, it is far more significant that
while the collective charisma directly sets power to a person, the collective
charisma itself starts to be set to its bearer by appointment.
To gain access to
charisma by appointment when charisma by definition sets power to a person
without appointment would provide a social structure with the property of a
paradox. Nevetheless it is worthwile to admit that this paradoxical structure
has emerged. Let us adduce some facts:
In May 1923 the
C(b)PSU had 386,000 members who had made themselves bolsheviks during their
undergrand activity, the revolution and civil war and the social power they had
at that time was provided them by this past record. Now, within a year the
above number grew by more than 90%, and only in the four months following
Lenin's death 240,000 people were, upon Stalin's initiative, appointed
communists without any corresponding past record.
And then they
inaugurated Stalin in his personal charisma. By appointment! Thus, the social
power of having a social power independently of appointment became dependent of
appointment. That Stalin's case was an exemplary case of the operating of this
paradox (see Garai, 1984) got crystal clear from Bukharin's reply to a western
sympathiser who wanted to find out how it was possible that with all those
bright and excellent personages in the revolutionary central committee of the
Bolshevik Party, the mediocre Stalin was chosen for the top. Not much before
his arrest Bukharin answered: „Éit was not he personally that we placed our
trust in but the man whom the party honoured with its trust.”
Thus in this structure
the charisma of the leader is not borne in his own person but (in the last
resort) the party appoints him to this individual charisma; the very party
whose members partake of the collective charisma not on account of their past
record of participation in a collective history but (in the last resort) get
their appointment to party membership from that very leader. Now, the leader
can be replaced by a collective leadership at one end (Politburo, Secretariat,
etc.), while at the other end party membership may get reduced to the party
apparatus; what does not change at all in this process is the perfectly
efficient paradoxical feedback mechanism beetween the two ends.
Any attempt that tries
to comprehend either the working of this mechanism or the principle of this
working, democratic centralism, in terms of the categories of bureaucracy will
lead to a blind alley.
The legitimacy of a
bureaucracy Ń be it organized centralistically or democratically Ń is
guaranteed by the fact that powers are exercised by those whose position imply
this function. If they were placed in their position by the will of the people,
then the definition of who belongs to the people is given incontestably and
independently of them; if, on the other hand, they were placed in their
position by a central will, it is given again incontestably and independently
of them who belongs to the centre. It may happen in both cases that buraucracy detaches itself
from the ultimate source of its legitimacy, but this step will not be within
its legitimate powers assigned as a function to its position.
The paradox that one
would have legitimate powers to designate and replace the legitimation base of
those powers is made possible and necessary, too, by the fact that powers keep
not being set to a position but to the subject of a now institutional
collective charisma. The mode of linking is determined by the nomenklatura.
The nomenklatura is a
list, on one hand, of a set of powers and, on the other hand, of a group of
people. Any of those powers may be set to anyone of these people and it makes
no difference to them how exactly the actual distribution happens. What does
matter is not the question of what is, in buraucratic terms, the position one
is appointed to, but the question to which nomenklatura the powers belong the
exercise of which is legitimized by that appointment: to the central one which
links a larger set of powers to a smaller group of people; or to a local one by
which a smaller set of powers is allocated to a larger group of people.
Voslensky in his work
on Nomenklatura (1980) states that the bureaucratic structure of the state,
party, large scale enterprises, etc. is only a surface manifestation of the
deep-lying structure of Soviet-type societies that turns out to be defined by
nomenklatura (the same way as the deep structure of capitalist societies is
determined by capital, i. e., Marx points out, not by the thing but by the
relation). Now, for those who can only think in terms of producing and
allocating the material conditions, these two systems of relations are not
distinguishable since both are equally exterior as refered to such an economy.
On the other hand, if
one apply the viewpoint of economic psychology that takes into consideration also
producing and allocating, by a post-capitalist economic system, the personal
conditions of its functioning, there appears the possibility to distinguish
these two kinds of relations and to comprehend their connexions in Soviet-type
societies based on those connexions (and that might be called for that reason
nomenklaturist societies, much rather than, as we have got accustomed to
calling them, socialist societies).
References
Garai, L., 1984: Vers
une thŽorie psycho-Žconomique de l'identitŽ sociale. Recherches Sociologique.
25:2-3. 313-335.
Garai, L., 1987a:
Determining economic activity in a post-capitalist system. Journal of Economic
Psychology. 8. 77-90.
Garai, L., 1987b: To
the psychology of economic rationality. In: Understanding economic behaviour.
12th Annual Colloquium of IAREP, the International Association for Research in
Economic Psychology. Handelhąjskolen I árhus, 1987. Vol. I. 29-41.
Schumpeter, J., 1971:
The instability of capitalism. In: Rosenbert, N. (ed.): The economics of technological
change. N. Y.
Voslensky, 1980: La
Nomenklatura. „Le livre de poche”, 5672. Pierre Belfond.
Weber, M., 1964:
Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. I. Kiepenhauer und Witsch, Köln-Berlin.
Soviet-type societies and Bolshevik-type parties
Abstract: A psychosocial study on
structure and fuctionning of Bolshevik-type parties and Soviet-type
societies. These societies (identifying themselves most frequently as those
of “really existing socialism”) evolve their world of appearances, contrary to
what has been discovered by Marx for the one in a capitalist society, emerged
in relation not to matter (reification)
but to persons. Traditional Marxian
criticism of such an ideology claims persons in Soviet-type societies to be but
personifications of positions in a bureaucratic structure. The paper argues
that the organizing principle of these societies is not bureaucracy but charisma
originated from 20th century's radical
antibureaucratic (illegitime) mass movements providing not only a charismatic leader but the whole
headquarter and even the Party as an avangarde with a social power that is set
not to the position the person occupies but to persons directly,
independently from positions occupied by each of them respectively. The paper
analizes the paradoxical structure
of that collective charisma: to this social power that is independent from
nomination in Soviet-type societies persons get nominated. Democratic centralizm is described as the principle of such a
paradoxical organization where the “Centrum” gets its social power by being
put in its charisma by a “Demos” being put in its one by that social power.
Marx developed a
method for the critique of ideologies to reduce the appearances of a society to
its substantial relations. The starting point of his method was his recognition
that the substance of society's network of connections is in its relations.
Accordingly, when an ideological consciousness attributes the cause of some
social effect to the properties of some matter, the task is to find the
relations underlying this property.
Such a virtual
property is the price of a commodity the rise and drop of which seems to be
able to exert disastrous effects on society. In Marx's view, however, price is
not such a property of a commodity that could be traced back to the inside of
the thing by some testing method; the effect is produced by the relations that
exist among the producers of goods in a community of commodity production.
In the rare
historic moments when in a Soviet-type society the
Marxist-Leninist ideological leadership happened to tolerate social science research
based on Marx' methodology, hence including a radical critique of ideology and
society, attempts were made to carry out investigations looking behind the appearances
in these societies connected to the properties of things. All these attempts
produced as a result was establishing facts of the capitalist social
relations' survival in the Soviet-type society, together with the appearance
of their material forms. E. g. it appears to be a property of productive equipment
both before and after the nationalizations that it is capable of producing
more value than was used to produce it. By Marx' method, however, it could be
shown that the socially effective relation in this performance both before and
after the nationalizations is the same, namely: the producers produced with
tools that were not disposed of by them but by others.
This procedure
did not lead to specific discoveries about “really existing socialism”[xxix],
except perhaps that no specific discoveries are either possible or necessary
since the “really existing socialism” is: capitalism.
We must note,
however, that in regard to their ideological appearances, capitalism and socialism do differ from each other. The
world of appearances in a capitalist society emerged in relation to matter,
while that of a Soviet-type society to persons.
Thus, Nedd Ludd's
followers were convinced that the source of all evil was the machine
that brought ruin to masses of people and had to be destroyed so that man might
survive. On the other hand, at the outset of the 20th century, all the European and North American
progressives advocated fully convinced
that the source of all good was the machine that liberates man from the
slavery of work.
Lenin's
followers, in turn, professed with just as much conviction that the source
of all good was: Stalin, and then later, within socialism the source of
all evil was: Stalin.
It seems then
that a theory which provides a critique of the ideological appearances of a
Soviet-type society and which aims at an understanding of the true deep
structure of that society must be able to orient itself in the world of
appearances related to the properties of persons and not matter.
After the
Twentieth Congress, when the practice of deriving all the features of socialism
from the features of Stalin's person was first criticized, this feature of
socialism was also derived from the personal features of Stalin. The cult of a
person, it was claimed, was utterly strange to the substance of socialism since
socialism emerged independently of the good or bad intentions of persons,
responding instead to the necessity of matter.
It is noteworthy
that today, when the commonplace of blaming all the gradually exposed
shortcomings of an entire era on Stalin's personal characteristics is
criticized, the argument goes on to warn that we shouldn't forget about
Stalin's environment either, i.e. about other persons' (like Beria, Molotov,
Voroshilov)… personal characteristics.
The domination of
appearances related to personal properties did not apply to the cult of Stalin
alone, even in his time. How seriously that period took Stalin's motto “It all
depends on the cadres” is proved by the enormous effort made to produce on a
mass scale suitable (for Stalin) cadres.
And this work
which was aimed at transforming human nature, was not in the least confined to
the cadres upon whom things did indeed depend at one time or other. This
society-wide effort set as its target the most private property of each and
every person: his conviction. This is what is borne out by the unprecedented
control exercised in centralized societies over all uttered or written words,
since such societies attribute to the word the omnipotent power of influencing
human will. This point is crucial because socialism throughout its history has derived
consequences from intentions. It works either by concluding from good
intentions to good consequences or by attributing bad intentions to bad
consequences.
One outcome of
this attitude is the certainty that if a revolution overthrows the status quo
in the name of socialism, the result of this historic deed will be the
socialism. Even if the revolution that breaks out in one country is not
followed by a Marxian global revolution, then what in this country emerged as
a result of socialist intentions will be socialism.
On the other
hand, bad intentions are blamed for the tarrying of global revolution: the
cause of revolution would be betrayed, e.g., by social democratic leaders
with bad intentions. Later the circle of those with hostile, treacherous
intentions keeps widening: while the central bureaucracy not only declares
that a future consequence (whatever it may be)
shall be socialism, but also predefines by a planning what exactly
shall be realized, then it attributes all the deficiencies of realization to
the consequences of hostile, saboteuring intentions. When agriculture declines
because the resources of its development are channelled into forced
industrialization, this consequence of the socialist intention is itself
regarded as socialist; when the same decline results from an invasion of
Colorado beetles, then the non-socialist intention underlying this obviously
non-socialist consequence is searched out and found in the Titoist imperialists
who must have planted the pestigerous insects. A stylistic parody of this turn
of mind is Sartre's comment that the construction of the Budapest subway
system was interrupted by the counterrevolutionary soil of the Hungarian capital
(in the mid-fifties it turned out that the technology used for constructing the
Moscow Underground begun could not be used in Budapest in a soil rich in hot
springs).
Now, if we want
to apply a Marxian critical theoretical analysis to the surface of the above
ideological appearances what relations could be found beneath them?
Whenever the time
comes in a Soviet-type society to criticize the system, the thought of Milovan
Djilas[xxx]
is invariably brought up according to which persons to whom the above
appearances are referred have no social impact as a function of their personal
qualities. In fact, in this system social power is not exerted by persons at
all, but is assigned by bureaucracy to a position in the social structure and
is attached to the individual only insomuch as he legitimately occupies a given
position. Thus, among other things, disposition over the means of production is
not attached to a person as a possibility mediated by his owning these means
privately; instead, it is attached to positions of various levels in economic
management through the mediation of which the powers of an economic injunction
can be borne by any person who happens to be legitimately in the given
position.
This hypothesis —
that the deep structure of a Soviet-type society is determined by the system of
bureaucratic relations — is seemingly reinforced by Max Weber's 1922 statement
that the organization of a socialist economic life “would only entail the
enormous increase in the professional bureaucracy”. At the same time, Weber
also noted that bureaucrcy as an all-pervasive tendency was produced “not only
by capitalism, but principally and undeniably by it’ because it needed a
rational, predictable management technique for the running of large enterprises.
In the final analysis, Weber states, “the economy, irrespective of the fact
whether it is organized in the capitalist or socialist manner, ...would only
mean the enormous increase in the professional bureaucracy,” if socialism
aspires to the same level of technical performance as capitalism.
If Weber were
right in considering the bureaucracy a common characteristic of both socialism
and capitalism, it wouldn't be very fruitful to identify the deep structure of
a socialist (as opposed to a capitalist) society with bureaucracy. The real
situation is quite the contrary.
One common
feature shared by several diverse mass movements of the 20th century is the tendency toward
antibureaucracy. Explicitly or implicitly, wittingly or unwittingly, such
movements oppose the bureaucratic principle which claims that social power is
not the person's who exerts it but belongs instead to the position the person
occupies in society.
Despite many and
sometimes mutually exclusive differences, these mass movements have in common
the attempt to set power to persons directly and independently of the
positions occupied by each of those
persons, respectively. The tendency is appparent, for instance, in
the charismatic leader who derives his social power from the very
anti-bureaucracy, anti-state movement and not from the bureaucratic state
authority.
It would be hard,
for example, to conceive of Lenin's powers as a function of his position as
head of government in the new Soviet state organized after the revolution, or
to derive those powers from the fact that he was one of members of the Bureau
of the Party's Central Committee. Although I shall return to the peculiar
nature of Stalin's charisma later; but let it be noted here that it too cannot be
derived from his being the head of the Party apparatus (secretary general). In
noncommunist mass movements as well, we find that the social power of the
person is independent of the position he takes; e. g. after 1934 Ghandi did not
occupy any position either in his Party or, after the proclamation of India's
independence, in the state.
In the historical
process in which the anti-state movement overthrows and seizes power in various
countries, the movement itself is not only the medium of the leader's charisma
but is also the subject of a sort of collective charisma.
Even more
pronouncedly becomes the subject of a collective charisma the Party that leads
the movement and still more the Party's headquarters staff. It is to be noted that the collective charisma
also sets directly to its bearer a social power. This is done in such a way
that the wider the circle of the carriers of the collective charisma, the
narrower the set of powers assigned to this group of people. It is also
important to note, however, that both the bearers of the charisma and those
under its influence may find such power legitimate, no matter how the powers
are distributed among persons in the group that bears those powers.
At the beginning
after the victory of a revolutionary movement the members of the charismatic
collective exercise the power they have seized not as functionaries but
as commissaries. What happens is not that some Party members begin to
replace former functionaries in the positions of the bureaucratic structure in
order to obtain the powers set to those positions, but that one or another
Party member gets direct commission to exercise a certain power.
Later, of course,
when the new power stabilizes as state power, the principle of bureaucracy
gains ascendancy: those commissioned to exercise certain powers become
gradually appointed to positions with those powers as their functions. What's
more, with the development of the Party apparatus the principle of bureaucracy
also penetrates into the Party: e. g. five years after the Russian revolution
15,325 functionaries were active in the apparatus of the Party, and another
fifteen years later there were about three times as many Party functionaries at
the intermediate level alone.
Far more
important is that while the collective charisma sets social powers to persons
directly, independently from appointment, however these persons start to get
installed into that collective charisma by appointment. Invest someone by
appointment with power that is independent from appointment — this paradoxical social structure
did emerged during the bolshevik history.
In May 1923 the
C(b)PSU had 386,000 members who had made themselves Bolsheviks during their
underground activity, revolution and civil war and the social power they had at
that time was provided them by this past record. Now, within a year the above
number grew by more than 90%, and only in the four months following Lenin's
death 240,000 people were, upon Stalin's initiative, appointed
communists without any corresponding past record.
In 1930 69% of
the secretaries of the Central Committees of the Soviet republics and of the
regional Party committees had been Party members since before the revolution
and thus carried personally the collective charisma of the old Bolshevik guard.
Nine years later 80.5% of those invested with this charisma had become Party
members after Lenin's death in 1924.
The tragically
grotesque reverse of the paradox of being inaugurated into the charisma by
appointment was the fact that the members of the old guard were “dismissed”
from the collective charisma of which they had partaken on account of their
past record, while they were at the same time “appointed” to the position of
“the enemy of the people”.
When we view the
cult of leader's personality in the light of this, it can be asserted that Stalin
also obtained his personal charisma by appointment. The paradox that
having social power independently of appointment itself has become dependent
on appointment is lucidly illustrated by Bukharin's reply to a western
sympathizer who wanted to find out how it was possible that with all those
bright and excellent personages in the revolutionary central committee of the
Bolshevik Party, the mediocre Stalin was chosen for the top. Not much before
his arrest Bukharin answered: “It was not he personally that we placed our
trust in, but the man whom the Party honored with its trust.”
Thus in this
structure the leader's charisma does not irradiate from the dephts of his own
personality but from the Party's appointment of him to this individual
charisma. On the other hand, this is the very Party whose members partake of
collective charisma not on account of their past record of participation in a
collective history, but because they owe their appointment to Party membership
from that very leader.
The leader can be
replaced by a collective leadership (Politburo, Secretariat; see below), at one
end, while at the other end Party membership may get reduced to the Party
apparatus; what does not change at all in this process is the perfectly
efficient paradoxical feedback mechanism beetween the two ends.
The principle of
such a feedback of structuring and functionning of Bolshevik-type parties is
that of democratic centralism.
The same manner
as one often tries to understand Soviet-type societies in terms of
bureaucracy, it seems to be the more appropriate term for understanding
Bolshevik-type parties with its apparatus in luxuriant growth. However, any
attempt that tries to comprehend this organization in such terms will lead to a
blind alley.
The feedback in a
bureaucratic system — be it centrally or democratically organized — concerns
the latter's functioning and not structuring. If those whose position imply a
function were appointed to that position by the will of a “Centrum”, it is
given incontestably and independently of them who belongs to that centre; if,
on the other hand, they were elected to their position by the “Demos”, then the
definition of who belongs to the people is given again incontestably and
independently of them. It may happen in both cases that bureaucracy detaches
itself from the ultimate source of its legitimacy, but this step is apparently
illegal: it falls necessarily outside the scope of power assigned as its
legitimate function.
On the other
hand, in the system of democratic centralism, the most important legitimate
function assigned to a position within the Party apparatus is “to decide in personnel
questions”, that is, to manage the practical problem of appointing or
dismissing the subject of the collective charisma. The fundamental question in
an organization of this structure is who constitutes the “Centrum” and who
belong to the “Demos”. By the time the “Demos” gets in a position where it can
have its will asserted democratically in the election of the “Centrum”, its composition
can be changed in such a way by the apparatus, by virtue of its legitimate
right to expel from and admit to its membership that the new composition will
elect that “Centrum” which the apparatus, by its legitimate power, has
previously nominated. Whether elected by the membership or appointed by the
Party committee at the relevant level, the Party apparatus has the legitimate
means to guarantee the conditions of its power for a practically unlimited
length of time, at least in periods without radical shocks.
The Party
apparatus does not always take such strongly marked steps as it did in Cuba.
According to a well known doctrine, a socialist revolution is always the deed
of the Communist Party, still the empirically given Communist Party headed by
Blas Roca at that time condemned the revolution as petty bourgeois
adventurism. Six years after the victory of the revolution this latter's
headquarter headed by Fidel Castro replaced the whole Communist Party by a new
one that was to hold its first congress only some ten years later.
Nevertheless, hereafter the validity of the above doctrine was ensured: from
that moment on the revolution had been the deed of this communist Party.
The Czechoslovak
Party apparatus only dismissed a single Party congress: the first XIVth Congress held on 22 August 1968 in
Vyso‹any was replaced by the second XIVth Congress. And the Party was purged of 500,000
people in the absence of whose potential votes to the opposite, the Party apparatus could go on exercising
its powers legitimately including its right to expel 500,000 people from the
Party whose potential votes might have stripped this power of legitimacy.
That less
far-reaching practice of dismissing the old Politburo and Central Committee by
the new secretary general for the very first years of his office is worth while
mentionning only because it may seem us as trivial as dismissing in any
bureaucratic system the staff of the previous superior by the succeeding one,
although the Politburo and the Central Committee is by no means a staff for the
secretary general who is subordinate to them.
On the other hand
the apparatus to whom the secretary general is indeed superordinate are
able to dismiss him as they really did with Khroushtchev in the Soviet or
Dub‹ek in the Czechoslovak Party, thereby forestalling the possibility of their
taking any measures concerning that apparatus. In the absence of such measures,
their dismissal continued to be a legitimate exercising of their powers.[xxxi]
The paradox of
having the legitimate power to appoint or dismiss the basis of legitimation for
this power is made possible and necessary by the fact that the powers are not
set to positions but to the subject of the collective charisma
institutionalized at the level of state-administration by the one-party system.
[xxxii]
It is an
important precondition of any organization to have greater coherence between
its parts than between any of these parts and the environment of the
organization.
Tajfel (1981)
states social psychology uses a kind of group concept for which “members of a
group are considered as such when they categorize themselves with a high
degree of consensus in the appropriate manner and are consensually categorized in the same manner
by others”. He adds that social psychology “is not concerned with the
historical, political, social and economic events which may have led to the
social consensus now defining who is »in« and who is »out«”, and he also points
out that while “there is no doubt that these events were crucial in the
establishment of the nature of this consensus; and is equally true that the
consensus once established represents those social psychological aspect of
social reality which interact with the social, political and economic events
determining the present and the future fate of the group and of its relations
with other groups” (pp. 229-230).
Regarding the
social psychological processes of consensus, the form by which the members
of a group belong together and separate themselves from those outside the group
might become more important than the substance of the economic,
political, ideological and cultural events that carry the form. That is why it
can often be observed that people invariably overemphasize their new
attachments and detachments by overemphasizing shared similarities and,
respectively, dissimilarities of what they do, say, think or feel, or the way
how they do it.
But,
paradoxically, the formal structure of relations also belongs to the substance
that it gives form to:
If the members of
a group believe they have some feature in common with each other, this common
belief itself suffices to create community among them. If, on the other hand,
they share the consideration of not sharing anything, this common belief leaves
them less reason to have it.
One can imagine a
group in which some will tolerate no one with intentions different from the
common will, while others will opt for the possibility of divergence. In such
cases the mere utterance of these conflicting standpoints immediately changes
the material reality to which they refer: the mere expression of the first
claim against the second immediately puts into force this other position (as
the divergence turns out to be possible), while the fact itself that the second
position may also be uttered invalidates its opposite (as there is someone who
does represent an intention deviating from the common will).
Those paradoxical
social structurings — in which the relation of a set of factors is included in
this very set — establish or undermine themselves, thus the logic that looks
for external foundations underlying the existence of social phenomena and
external mines under their abolition in order to understand them is inadequate.
It is a
well-known historical fact that the Bolshevik-type parties make a point of the
disciplined unity of their members and their pronounced disunity
even with those whose position on crucial questions may differ only slightly
from that of the Party; it is also an open secret that it uses skillfully the
political weapon of striking and disrupting alliances —. shuttling between
unity and disunity — in relation to its allies.
When surveying
the historical manifestations of the strategy and tactics of unity and
disunity within Bolshevik-type parties and around them, one begins to feel
that these processes are generated by those who, to put it in Tajfel's terms
quoted above, attach greater importance to the form than to the substance of
economic, political, ideological and cultural events: a Bolshevik-type party
often attaches less significance to the substance of what members do, say, feel
or think as compared to the form by which the fact in question resembles what
other Party members (or of them, for instance the followers of Stalin) do, say,
think or feel, and differ from what others (including, e. g. Trotsky's
followers within the Party) do, say, think or feel.
To understand
rightly the relations organized by Bolshevik-type parties we have to take into
account their paradoxical structure. The history of these parties often
demonstrates that unity and disunity are defined in reference to such factors
the most important of which is the relation of unity and disunity itself. In a
party organized on the basis of democratic centralism there must be disciplined
unity concerning the requirement that in the Party there must be disciplined
unity; at the same time, the Bolshevik-type party always makes efforts to
impose disunity to those elements of society from whose totality the Party
maintains its disunity.
Usually this
tendency of accentuating both its own unity and its adversaries' disunity is
considered only from a sociotechnical point of view, i.e. from that of
practicability for a political organization to unify itself and disunify
adversaries. However, in case of this type of Party there is a much more
profound effect of defining people's social identity, while the above paradoxes
by which social structures establish or undermine themselves are applied.
Namely, social identity of those belonging to a Bolshevik-type party turns
out to establish itself while the identity of those opposed to that party gets
undermined.
Let us consider a
continuum of four categories of people:
+Be with extreme Bolshevik, +Bm with
moderate Bolshevik, -Bm with
moderate non-Bolshevik and -Be with
extreme non-Bolshevik attitudes. All things considered, the position of +Bm may be as close to that of -Bm (whose is non-Bolshevik, but
moderate) as to the one of +Be (Bolshevik,
but extremist). And, similarly, the position of -Bm may be as distant from that of +Bm (though moderate, but Bolshevik) as from the position of -Be (although non-Bolshevik, but
extremist). A Bolshevik-type organization of relations on that continuum
means 1., the accentuation of the unity between +Be and +Bm; 2., sharpening
of the disunity between +Bm and -Bm; 3., the suggestion to -Be and -Bm to accentuate their disunity; 4., and the unity between ‑Bm and +Bm.
Now, the way
these four categories of people elaborate their social identity, as referred to
their social relations, effectively changes these relations and thus
strengthens or weakens the merits of the choice for identity. And namely,
strengthens the Bolshevik side of the above continuum and weakens its
non-Bolshevik side:
When both
extremist and moderate Bolsheviks state their unity the unity in this statement
strengthen what they state. On the other hand, the unity of both extremist and
moderate non-Bolsheviks in claiming their disunity weaken the relation they are
claiming. And as to the relations of two moderate categories, the more the
non-Bolsheviks insist on their unity while that of Bolsheviks keeps accentuating
their disunity, the more they manifest a disunity and not unity.
An organization
that evolves on the basis of some properties' substance does not
necessarily fix the relations' form in which the bearers of these substantial
properties can interact with each other and with the bearers of some other
properties. Of course, it is useful for a political organization to be united
and to prevent its opposition from forming their own unity. Yet some form of
unity is already derived from the fact that members are uniformly workers, for
example, and some disunity with others is ensured by the latter not being
workers. That would remain unchanged even if the latter gathered in a party
of their own, or factions emerged within the former's party.
Quite different
is the case with a party which defines its internal unity and the disunity with
the external world not in terms of some substance but in terms of this very
form of unity and disunity. Such a party can only distinguish between its own
organization and those outside it by accentuating the former's unity and the
latters' disunity.
It follows from
this paradoxical organization that the Bolshevik-type party can tolerate
neither those outside the Party forming their own unity (setting up a party
besides the Party) nor those within the Party disrupting unity (members
aligning themselves by factions): none of these developments would allow for
the differentiation between the two formally defined poles.
Within the unity
of the Party, the pattern of disunity characterizing the relationship between
the Party and those outside it is repeated: the “Centrum” defined by democratic
centralism is disunited within the Party from the “Demos” in the same way as
the Party is separated from those outside the Party. The “Centrum”, as the
bearer of formal unity, is disunited from the “Demos”, which is formally
disunited: local Party units get disunited from one another and no relationship
can be established between them unless mediated by the “Centrum”.
The pattern of
disunity is further repeated within the “Centrum”: the Politburo preserves its
unity against the larger Central Committee just as the latter separates itself
from the whole membership.
Yeltsin's
memorable faux pas is illuminating in this regard. The first secretary of the
Moscow Party committee addressed the plenary meeting of the Central Committee
as substitute member of the Politburo without preliminarily thrashing out with
the Politburo his highly critical comments on the organizational and personal constraints
on perestroika. Thus, in breaching Politburo discipline by divulging secrets to
those outside the Politburo, he violated the same structure as a Party member
would in breaching Party discipline by releasing Party secrets to outsiders; in
the structure of democratic centralism both are seen as cardinal offenses.
In such an
organization the inner circle always has power over the outer circle. The
pledge of former's power is, however, resignation from this power in favor of a
still more inner circle. For in none of the circles is the position of power
differentiated from powerless positions by a definite substance; one cannot say
that the power is lodged with the workers, or the bureaucrats, or the managers;
one cannot say that power belongs to those whom the army or the security forces
obey, who have capital or who have knowledge, who can use the tools of
propaganda, who have college degrees or a past record in the workers' movement The
only criterion of a power position is formal: it is the position characterized
by unity — in contrast to the powerless position of those disunited from one
another. Those who relinquish power on behalf of a still more inner circle
demonstrate that they have adopted the position of unity. The position of
power, that is.
That explains the
exceptional discipline which is characteristic of all circles of power. Those
expelled from the innermost circles almost never protest or argue against the
expulsion: they do not set up a “true” Politburo, a “true” Central Committee, a
“true” Party in opposition to the “false” or “treacherous” Politburo, CC or
Party. Should they do so, their acts would immediately reveal that they were
not in a position of unity but of disunity. The position of powerlessness, that
is.
”We cannot be
right unless with, or through the Party”, Trotsky wrote.
For a
psychologist, the history of the communist movement is the history of the
persons who remained loyal to the Party that expelled them.
This disciplined
solidarity with the innermost circles usually remained unchanged even when
someone was banished not only from Party leadership or Party membership, but
also from among the normal citizens into the world of convicts or forced labour
camps, or even from the world of the living.
Savarius recalled
a meeting in the anteroom of Rakosi in 1954. He was waiting for his turn to be
received by Rakosi when Janos Kadar left Rakosi's office. Both he and Savarius
had just been released from prison; both were aware of this fact and of
Rakosi's responsibility for their imprisonment. But Kadar started telling
Savarius how genuinly indignant Rakosi became when he just learned
from Kadar how badly certain comrades were treated.
One of the
greatest mysteries for the twentieth-century progressive social thinking is why
the victims of Stalin's great terror, who were brought to court openly at a
time when they had no longer any hope of a personal future offered heavily
damning testimonies against themselves. But, the mistery is resolved when we
realize that, in fact, these communists, forced into a tragic situation,
confessed to being traitors to the Party in order to manifest their loyalty to
it: when they were instructed by the Party to confess to disuniting acts
against it, had they declared never having committed any would have been the
very disuniting act.
The true secret
of the deep structure of a Soviet-type society is that the organization of
democratic centralism — in which the inner circle has power over the outer
circle under the condition that the former relinquishes power in favour of a
still more inner circle — eventually encompasses the entire society.
It is to be
remembered at this point that the relation between the inner and outer circles
of the structure of a Soviet-type society is not identical with the relations
between the upper and lower levels of a bureaucratic hierearchy. The inner
circles house the subject of a collective charisma institutionalized for the
entire society, while the outer circles house the medium of that charisma.
The charisma
assigns some social power directly to a person, while the collective charisma
assigns a set of powers to a set of people. This relation is materialized in
the nomenklatura which contains both the stock of powers that are set
directly to persons in the more inner or more peripheral circles, and the list
of persons to whom they are set. Voslensky argues in an excellent book that the
relations materialized in the Nomenklatura are the class relations that
determine the deep structure of a Soviet-type society.
The first
historically decisive development with relevance to the future emergence of
the Nomenklatura as a class was the emergence of the category of the professional
revolutionist in the course of the rise of a Bolshevik-type party. Viewed
in purely economic terms, the persons belonging to this category subsisted differently from any of the three
basic classes of the capitalist society: they did not live by either the
profit of their capital, the rent of their land or the wages for their labour.
The nature of their subsistance was similar to that of the bureaucrat's in the
sense that they obtained it through activities concerning the State status quo;
only, while the bureaucrat's activity was aimed at preserving the status
quo, the professional revolutionist's was aimed at overthrowing it.
The second
historically decisive development was the emergence of the organizing principle
of democratic centralism, which provided the professional revolutionist with
immense independence through, and partly against, the membership of the party
organization he had helped to develop. How this principle acts was seen above.
At the time of
the Russian Revolution the resulting organization was a mere tool even with all its immense
independence and operativeness, and there was perfect consensus between the
professional revolutionists and the Party membership as to the goal in view of
which it could be judged to what extent the functioning of the organization was
authentic and to what extent it wasn't.
The third
historically decisive development was the replacement of the Party membership,
determined by the substance of a revolutionary socialism, by one that was
determined solely by the form of democratic centralism connecting that
membership with the old guard of professional revolutionists. This replacement
was in part made necessary by the civil war that killed a large section of the
authentic Party membership, and in part it was realized by Stalin's initiative
to appoint a new membership to the collective charisma of the Bolshevik party.
Finally, the
fourth historically decisive development was the great terror of the years
after Kirov's murder, by which Stalin carried out the same replacement, now at
that place of the structure which had so far been taken by the Leninian staff
of the professional revolutionists. As a result of a sequence of bloody
personnel changes, the new structure made sure no one could lay claim to
certain power on truly substantional grounds (e. g. with reference to the fact
that his past record testifies to his being really a revolutionist, an authentic
Marxist, etc.).
As a consequence
of the Stalinian transformation, the position of the structure developed by and
for the professional revolutionists still was taken by people
a) whose social
power was not the function of their position but assigned to their persons
directly by a collective charisma,
b) to which they
were, nevertheless, inaugurated as to a post
c) by
“democratic” decisions made possible or impossible by the preliminary decisions
of “centralism”, in social psychological games played in the forms of “unity”
and “disunity”, while
d) for both the
“Centrum” and the “Demos” this power structure becomes the end, while
functioning in terms of the original value (socialism) the means.
In the light of
the above we can better understand what is currently happening in Soviet-type
societies and their Bolshevik-type parties.
We are to see two
points now: one surprising and one preventing from a quite possible mistake.
What surprises
most witnesses of developments in Soviet-type societies is the rapid
disintegreation of the Bolshevik-type party, while, at the same time, quick
shifts of this tendency are guided (at least in Soviet Union and in Hungary,
and at least in the beginning, but for a rather considerable period of time) by
this very Party.
In the Soviet
Union in a little over 5 years Gorbachev has succeeded if not to change, at
least to query the totality of the 73 years of the Soviet history, including
the Lenin's revolution itself: all this in an empire where throughout those 73
years no querying was allowed even if referred to a trivial aspect of the
system.
And in Hungary
(though on a much smaller scale) in less than 2 years the Bolshevik-type party
has had it in its power
to change at once
the large majority of the Central Committee and the Politburo staff and the
person of the secretery general (Kádár to Grósz);
to shift in the
ideological judgment about very important items of the recent political history
(1956: from “counter-revolution” to “popular insurrection”);
3. It has given
up three fundamental doctrines and the social practice corresponding to these
doctrines:
a. By renouncing
the principle of democratic centralism the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party
at its last Congress (1989, October) demolished its own organizational edifice
based on that principle and set up a new one comprising not 800 thousands
members of primary organizations in all economic, administrative, cultural and
other offices throughout the country as earlier, only 50 thousands people
organized the non-Bolshevik way of any parliamentary party.
b. By droping the
dogma of the Party being the vanguard of the proletarian class and of the whole
society this latter was given (still by a decision of the Central Committee of
the Party) the possibility to freely elect a new Parliament with a large
(almost 90%) non-Communist majority.
c. By giving up
the dogma of the dictatorship of the proletariat no protection of this class
against prejudicial consequences (e. g., unemployment) of a certain economic
development prevented any more steps to be taken to such a development.
Traditionally,
normal political organisations are established by outside forces, and thus they
may be eliminated in an organized way only by other outside forces. On the
other hand, if an organization is destroyed from inside the revolutionary
processes are either spontaneous and not organized or organized by another
organization opposed to the one of the establishment.
An organizational
suicide became realizable only through the perfectly efficient paradoxical
feedback mechanism which I have described here. What has occurred is nothing
but another manifestation of democratic centralism — this time, however, entirely reversed in
functioning.
*
Now, as to a
quite possible mistake: it is about the end of the communism. Thoughts
aiming at this conclusion consider communism as a political establisment and
its ideological spirit. In this sens communism seems indeed to come to an end.[xxxiii]
[i] Taking this psychosocial relationship
into account is equally important for understanding why the bolshevik-type
organization resisted with an apparently immovable stability to all the sharp
turns of history, and why it had been in a snap reduced to powder by the
emergence of the Gorbachev phenomenon. This latter made it a legitimate
communist attitude to consider as more important a question whether someone is
moderate than is the question whether he is a communist. This change in the
viewpoint of moderate communists was supplemented by that of the moderately
non-communists who, for some time, considered it to be more important whether
one was a communist or not than whether he was a moderate in his position.
Following
this change of viewpoints
the paradoxical self-establishing and self-undermining effects of identity do not cease to exist but mutually change sides. The
more vigorously the moderate communists emphasize that they have
nothing in common with the extremist
communists, the more markedly they have in common with them precisely this reciprocal
definition of their
social identity. And the more they insist that nothing separates
them from non-communist moderates, the more markedly they are at once separated
from them, let alone by this separate definition. Now the self-defined social identity
of comunists, and especially of those among them who are moderates turns out to
undermine itself.
Meanwhile the self-defined
social identity of non-communist moderates establishes itself, when by claiming
their separation from moderate communists they do install this separation. If
on this non-communist side the moderates and extremists were united not in
preserving their division, we would already have the complete bolshevik
structure reversed.
[i] It
is illuminating to quote at
this juncture an offence committed by Yeltsin still as a party functionary. When he
was the first secretary of the party
committee of Moscow, he addressed the plenary meeting of the Central Committee as a substitute member of the
Politburo without previously putting forward his comments, which were highly
critical of certain Politburo members obstructing the perestroyka and their
organizational possibilities, to the Politburo meeting. At the time it meant
that disrupting the unity of the Politburo he divulged the secret of the PB to
non-PB members, whereby he violated the same structure as any member of a
bolshevik-type party who, disrupting the unity of the party, divulged the
party secret to non-party people. Accordingly, Yeltsin's act was a similar
capital offence in the bolshevik-type structure.
[i] In
his book about the
true ruling class of a Soviet-type system, the Nomenclatura, Voslensky
(1980) writes: “Although in socialist countries there is officially no corporation of the functionaries, the Nomenclatura
would be satisfied to see an outside
observer regard it
what it is not. It carefully disguises itself as an administrative apparatus,
and is ready to declare
that it agrees with interpretations
like that; the point
is that its true class
character should never
be openly revealed. In actual fact, a body of functionaries
and the Nomenclatura share
nothing in common. The functionaries perform the
instructions of the authorities,
while the Nomenclatura gives the instructions: the resolutions,
recommendations and advice by leading party organs. Functionaries are the
privileged servants of the state — the nomenclaturists are the masters of
the state.” (p. 132)
[i] If we supposed, according to this list,
that we would find more office-holders, or more of those whom the army or the
security organs obey, or who know the Doctrine, or who have a past in the
workers' movement etc. in the party than outside it, and more in the central
organs of the party than in its primary units, generally speaking, if we had
the assumption that any of the presumably critical sociological properties appeared
in greater density in the central organizations of a Soviet-type structure than
on the correlated periphery, then the following should be realized: not the carriers
of these properties get to the central places of a Soviet-type structure;
rather, a place close to the centre inclines its incumbent to carry such
properties. It is sufficient to recall how the Leader appointed to the most
central post of such a structure is attributed in this system by the medium of
his charisma all the attributes listed above.
[i] Right down to those sentenced to death
upon trumped-up charges, who confessed to treason against the party just to
prove their loyalty to it.
[i] As for Hungary, Andras Brody estimates
the cost of military spendings (for 1980) at a minimum 25% of the GNP as
against the officially stated 2.5%, pointing out that it might as well be as
high as 45% (Valós≥ág, 1990, 33:6. 30-37 [in Hungarian]).
[i] Or that of the political economy, as e.
g. Kornai does in his recently (1992) published excellent work The Socialist
System: The Political Economy of Communism (Princeton University Press). In
the final adjustment of the actual paper I kept in mind the analysis of the
system by Kornai's book.
László Garai
Institute for Psychology, Hungarian
Academy of Sciences
Budapest, Hungary
Abstract: The paper deals
with the social
psychology of competition versus monopoly as referred to the 20th century
second modernization.
This latter‘s
main difference is made with the 19th century first modernization in manufacturing
not only material but also human factors of the actual socio-economic
system's functioning. It is stated that unlike the material production depending
only on technical attributes of both
producing and produced factors, the modern human production is determined also
by the factors' social relations.
Those of competition versus
monopoly are considered as psycho-social conditions for an optimal
functionning of a market
vs planned economic system.
Totalitarian states are pictured as factories for the mass-production of a perfect
competition with the complete eradication (by the fascist
or national socialist type totalitarian states)
of monopolistic factors
versus those for the mass-production of a perfect
monopoly with the complete eradication (by the Bolshevik type totalitarian states)
of competitive factors
in the society.
The
paradoxes of the Bolshevik-type psycho-social structure in economy
László Garai
Institute for Psychology, Hungarian
Academy of Sciences
Budapest, Hungary
This paper is going to deal with the society Schumpeter ment when in a
writing of the post-World War I period (1922) he stated that capitalism was
transforming so obviously into something else that he considered not the fact
itself, merely its interpretation, to be a point of contention: whether what
capitalism transformed into after the war and the subsequent revolutions and
counter-revolutions was socialism or not Schumpeter considered only a matter of
taste and terminology (pp. 41-43).
To eschew this “matter of taste and terminology”, when I started studying
this radically transformed system whether of market, planned or mixed character I labelled it post-capitalism. In my earlier investigations
(Garai, 1987, 1988, 1991a) I was led to the conclusion that the essence of
this transformation is the transition from the first, 19th century phase of the modernization to the 20th century second modernization.
I understand by modernization the tendency according to which the society intervenes artificially into natural
processes in order
to provide itself with conditions of its own
functioning. Those earlier studies revealed that during the first modernization
period the socio-economic system dealt with its material and human
conditions differently: by producing the material factors it depended on, on one hand, and by making
itself independent of the human phenomena which had not
been produced by it. Now, from the turn of the century onwards
running the socio-economic system was no longer independent of the faculties and needs acting
in the population and, consequently, it faced the necessity of manufacturing also its own human conditions.
When one starts to examine how during the second modernization this
necessity has been dealt with, the first statement he can make is about a
technology the state in various countries introduced practically simultaneously
in the period starting with World War I. The technology in question tried to apply
to handling people the same logic of
a large scale mass production in processing industry the economic organizations
of the previous century successfully used in handling things.
The logic of processing industry ranges things into three classes: the class of useful things complying with the aims of man is opposed to the class
of harmful
things countering man's
aims; between them is the class of raw materials, whose originally neutral attributes can be turned
useful upon a useful effect
and harmful upon a harmful
one. Processing industry exposes raw materials to useful effects
and, at the same time,
in order to protect these
materials against harmful
effects it tries
to narrow the spectrum of these latters' causes by the most effective procedure, i.e. by eradicating harmful
things themselves.
The same way, the state whose ambition was boosted in World War I ranges
persons into three classes: the
class of those who make themselves useful
as means for the state's most exalted ends; those who subject themselves
as malleable raw materials to the
educational ambitions of the former class; finally, the class of harmful people who traverse the above ends of the state. As this
latter class, misusing the malleability of the human raw material, would win
over a part of it to their side, therefore the most effective procedure against
them is considered to be their extermination.
This practice and
the relevant ideology have perfected itself in the totalitarian state. But the date of its birth is not
1933, when the national socialists assumed power
in Germany; or 1922, when in Italy
the fascists did so; nor is it 1917 when the Bolsheviks seized
power in Russia. The totalitarian state was born in 1914 when, in various
states simultaneously, the still traditional
power fulfilled a no longer
traditional task: from the raw material represented by civil persons who had been set to “live and let live”
the mobilization order produced on a large scale this useful
product represented by soldiers.
Further on, the totalitarian states inherited this ready-made tool to
be used for their goals,
and, in addition, also inherited the “know how” to operate
with almost unlimited efficiency large scale works
in this peculiar
processing industry in which
the tools, raw materials and pestiferous factors are all human beings.
At first glance one would conclude that the Bolshevik-type society was the
survivor of this totalitarian state formation: it made use of the products and
the “know how” produced by the two-act World War for forty years after them,
and now, with a delay of a whole epoch, it follows its ideological antagonist
to the sink of history.
When, however, we
consistently apply the viewpoint of economic psychology instead of an ideological
approach, we shall discover yet another implication.
There exists such
a difference between things and persons, which makes it impossible to simply
apply the logic of handling one of these categories to handling the other one.
The point is that things can, while persons cannot unambiguously be by their attributes classified into one of the
above-mentioned three groups. Regarding persons, when we try to trace down
their attributes in order to explain social phenomena their causes turn out to
be relations instead. For instance,
someone in majority exerts his influence differently from someone in minority
(Moscovici, 1976).
Relations have a
logic that is quite different from that of attributes. That gets particularly
evident if we compare how does that logic work when one wants to define his/her
social identity in terms of attributes or relations, respectively.
Let us see, e. g., the attribute of a fine crop of hair which, if
necessary, may clearly differentiate my social category from that of
bald-heads. In this case the attribute and the social category are somehow
interrelated: if I want to switch over to the other social category I may be
compelled to give up my attribute and assume that of the other group. On the
other hand, if I want to exchange my attribute for theirs I have to accept that
the moment I shave my head close, as a result, I will belong in some way among
the bald-heads.
A well-known tendency is connected with this relation: as soon as a markedly
different attribute (e.g., skin color) is noticed on someone s/he is made susceptible
to be classed in a social category detached from the category of those who
noticed the difference. And, on the other hand, when a group of people defines
their social identity as categorically different from that of others, they are
willing to develop also an attribute that is just as different (cf. the
skin-heads).
Completely different is the case when two social categories differentiate
themselves along some relations and not attributes. Unlike attributes, the
value that characterizes a person in terms of a relation can be detached from
the social category to which the person belongs. E.g., I may belong to those who are the
majority in some regard, the other group being the minority. It is then
possible that I change groups without ceasing to be a majority person, for my
very joining may have changed the other group from minority to majority
status. Or it may also happen that I become a minority person without changing
groups, if some of my fellow-members shifted their group.
Therefore, when a
totalitarian state tries to apply the same logic to persons' relations
by which the traditional processing industry handles the things' attributes,
then everything turns upside down.
So far, the authors of folk-poetry of jokes have taken a greater interest
in this upside-down situation than those who should reckon with it for some
serious matter. When, for instance, we want to get rid of a harmful effect of
a certain attribute, the technology of exterminating the very last specimen of
the things carrying this attribute guarantees 100% success. This is turned
inside out by the following joke applying the technology to relations instead
of attributes: “Are there cannibals among you, gentlemen?”, the missionary asks
the natives. “No, sir”, their spokesman replies. “We ate the last one
yesterday.”
This
paradox turning things upside down, however, immediately assumes a serious
countenance when we realize that the basic psycho-socio-economic problem the
second modernization has to deal with is just connected to relations. The point
is that
the
optimum functioning of a market economy requires
the relation of perfect competition,
i. e. one that no monopoly of any of
the economic actors restrains.
And, on the other hand,
the
optimum functioning of a planned
economy requires the relation of
perfect monopoly of the planning authority, i. e. one not restrained by
the competition of others.
Now, in fact, the
actual psycho-socio-economic relations by the early 20th century it became
manifest that competition and monopoly do constrain each other and,
thus, for the optimum running of either a market or a planned economy various
totalitarian states of the second modernization period by the peculiar
processing industry they run have to transform these ambiguous relations into
an unambiguous one (either competition, or monopoly).
As to this
processing industry whose raw material is the above ambiguous relation, two
paradoxical statements have to be done. According to the first one
THE COEXISTENCE OF COMPETITION AND MONOPOLY IS ITSELF
A COMPETITION,
between interests in competition and interests in the monopoly. On the
other hand, if this ambiguous relation as a raw material gets successfully processed,
than the exclusiveness of either of the two relations turns out to be the final
product. But
BOTH THE EXCLUSIVENESS OF MONOPOLY OVER COMPETITION
AND THE EXCLUSIVENESS OF COMPETITION OVER MONOPOLY IMPLY MONOPOLY.
Whenever in the
20th century the human processing industry functions by the principle of the market,
it only intervenes in the spontaneous events to protect the market from the
monopoly and guarantee the undisturbed competition. And by this very
intervention the competition between monopoly and competition got changed
for the monopoly of the competition. This was
the main trend
in the development of that kind of totalitarian states
which had been represented by
the fascist Italy and the national-socialist Germany.
With this type of totalitarian states it is customary to state that
contrary to Bolshevik-type totalitarian states, their economic development does
not break off but continues uninterrupted after the collapse of the political
regime, because allegedly these
systems have not undermined the market, the basis of economy.
But there is more to it than that. These totalitarian states tried to
process their raw material in such a way that the market should be ensured the
personal condition of perfect competition (as was expressed by such elements of
their propaganda as the promotion of dangerous living, the cult of heroes),
while those factors of the economic life get eradicated which is believed to be
carriers of monopolies (Jewish businessmen, trade unions, etc.)
“Are there
cannibals among you, gentlemen?’ — “No, sir, we ate the last one yesterday.”
The paradox of the joke I quoted above is dead serious: in order to eradicate
monopoly, the fascist and national socialist totalitarian state made itself
the possessor of an unprecedented power monopoly.
The determination
of the totalitarian state to shape human raw material failed in the case of
fascist, national-socialist totalitarian states not because the technology of
processing has been morally abject but because of the above logical
absurdities as a result of which the system itself undermined its existence.
In this regard,
completely different was the Bolshevik-type society. This difference is not the
one that the dominant ideologies of both types of totalitarian state kept in
evidence as something exaggerated to cosmic proportions (which shows another
facet of their similarities).
The boundaries of
differing were determined by the fundamental similarity that both types of
totalitarian state were organized by extending the successful technology of
processing industry from things to persons, while again both used that double
heritage of the world war: soldiers produced from civilians and the know-how of
such a processing.
What does
differentiate the Bolshevik-type society within these boundaries is that here
the human processing technology, when applied to make ambiguous relations
unambiguous, is practiced in the interest of planning, in order to
protect it from the competition and guarantee the undisturbed monopoly of the
planning authorities.
The human
processing technology has in any case a paradoxical effect turning intentions
upside down. But
a
fascist-type state in order to get the market
provided with the competition
eradicates competition
and
protected from monopoly creates monopoly
while
a
Bolshevik type state in order to get the plan
protected from the competition
eradicates competition
and
provided with the monopoly
creates monopoly
By the first
paradoxical connection the social structure that is to be built undermines itself, while by the
second paradoxical connection it establishes
itself. The difference between the two kinds of paradoxical social
structure is especially important to keep in evidence in order to see why the
fascist-type totalitarian states collapsed after the world war while the
Bolshevik-type totalitarian societies began to expand. One cannot simply
attribute this to the historical eventuality of the fortune of war.
If the above
argumentation is true and the totalitarian states really turned upside down
because the logic of processing industry, which was developed for handling
things' attributes had been applied by them to persons' relations, then a
social psychological feature of the basic organization of the Bolshevik-type
society requires special attention.
In the preceding
we have seen the difference between the group-organizing effect of people's
attributes and that of relations: how bald-heads and people with a fine crop of
hair identify themselves and each other, and how people in majority versus
those in minority do so. Now, the Soviet-type societies retrace their existence
to a social group whose history began by marking themselves off from the
opponent group not in terms of an attribute but by evoking that relation
according to which this group once happened to be in majority; that is, in their native Russian: Bolshevik.
The members of the group went on identifying themselves by this name later as
well. They were Bolsheviks, that is, in majority even when their fraction
happened to be in minority within the Russian socialist democratic Party; or
later on when this fraction broke with the original party where the Mensheviks,
i.e., those in minority not only got
the majority but constituted the totality of the membership. And they called
themselves by this name when after the revolution those “in majority”
liquidated (first in terms of organization and later physically as well) those
“in minority”.
This
psycho-social peculiarity of the Bolshevik party would have deserved marked
attention because it constitutes a special case of a general characteristic,
namely that the Bolshevik-type parties referred themselves much more to relations' form then to attributes' substance. Thus, it was
more important to have a disciplined unity among the rank-and-file of the party
than was the program in relation to which that unity was established and
maintained: the same indissoluble unity of disciplined members characterized
the Bolshevik-type parties when the program called for a fight against social
democratic leaders; when somewhat later it rallied communists together with
social democrats in a popular front against Hitler; when it urged a fight
against Trotsky who was accused of having entered into a secret pact with
Hitler; when Stalin actually had entered into such a pact, so this motive was
omitted from the mobilization against Trotsky; when the sole point of the
program was mobilization against the Germans, in alliance with the
Anglo-Saxon states; and also when after the world war the mobilization exalted
the fight against Anglo-Saxon imperialism.
It is a further
well-known historical fact that Bolshevik-type parties stress not only their
disciplined unity but also efficiently brandish the political weapon called
"salami-tactic" against their enemies whom they can markedly divide
into those who are willing and those who are unwilling to enter into a tactical
union with the communists.
This intention to unite and divide is usually considered from a socio-technical
viewpoint, in terms of the advantage that a political organization gets nearer
to the realization of its goals if it is united and its enemies are divided.
In the case of the Bolshevik-type parties, however, a much deeper effect than
the socio-technical is involved which is again mediated by relations'
paradox. Unlike attributes, relations can also be defined by the way they are
thought about by those involved in them: for instance, whether people
elaborate their similarities and differences in a similar or different way may
reinforce (or weaken) the elaborated similarity or difference.
If a group is unified by claiming that they are marked by the relation of unity,
this relation characterizes it at once to some extent. By contrast, when the
consensus is reached about the group being divided, it is at once less divided.
Finally, if a group is divided by the question whether it is unified or
divided, then the former opinion weakens and the latter strengthens its
grounding by its mere emergence.
By elaborating their relations in this way, people define their social identity, and by means of these
elaboration paradoxes, the defined social identity may either establish or
undermine itself. Now,
a
Bolshevik-type party mobilizes all the paradoxes of unity and division in such
a way that the social identity of its members turn out to be established and that of
non-party-people undermined.
First, by over-emphasizing their
unity, the members
of such a party get more unified
indeed just because
this over-emphasizing unifies
them still more: thus, the Bolshevik identity defined
by this relation established itself.
Second, by
applying the salami-tactic to the non-Bolshevik section of society, it
achieves that those who are willing to enter into some alliance with the
communists and those who are unwilling to deal with them at all shall
over-emphasize their division; hence, they manifest their unity in this regard:
the non-Bolshevik identity defined by this relation is undermined.
Third, the
salami-tactic usually appears as an alliance policy of the moderate
Bolsheviks inviting the moderate non-Bolsheviks to think (and act accordingly)
that the moderates inside and outside the party are natural allies against
the sectarians, extremists of both sides;
meanwhile the party-moderates watch jointly with
the party-extremists over the strict dividing line that separates the world
inside from the world outside the party. Thus the division of the moderates
by the question whether they are united or divided, establishes the social
identity defined by claims of Bolsheviks to be divided and undermines the
one defined by non-Bolsheviks who insist on being united.[28]
If all paradoxes work to the benefit of the Bolshevik-type party by establishing the chosen social
identity of (the sincerely committed part of) its members and undermining the chosen social
identity of the non-Bolshevik section
of society, and if we consider that a person's
social identity is nothing but his/her specifically elaborated social relations, then we can venture the statement that
the Bolshevik-type
party is a factory for the large-scale production of relations.
This statement
might probably sound queer. But anyone who ventures into a study of modern
societies in terms of economic psychology will probably have a feeling of
queerness from the moment he has realized the connection between the logic
applied by a totalitarian state and the logic of large-scale production in
processing industry. This feeling will probably grow more intense when
during this intellectual adventure one cannot help concluding that the
technology that is applied by the totalitarian state according to the logic
shared by processing industry fails just because it can only be used to
mass-produce attributes and not to mass-produce relations. But now we have
just identified the conveyor-belt for the enlarged production of relations:
as a useful product of the material processing industry facilitates still
more production of useful products, just the same way producing a division
among people in respect whether they belong to a definite organization or not
facilitates the production of still more division in this respect while
producing the unity of the members of this organization facilitates the
production of still more unity of people in the organization.
For the
Bolshevik-type organizations being a device of an enlarged reproduction of
relations we may find a further argument in another odd feature of theirs:
the
pattern of unity and division that was demonstrated in the relation between party-members
and non-party members is reproduced within the party, in the relation between
the Centre and the Membership.
The Center is
unified: it makes its decisions with an unanimous vote and never
by a simple or qualified majority; at the same time,
the membership is organizationally divided into primary
units, which can only keep in contact through the center, since
getting in touch directly constitutes the capital offense of factionalism.
The pattern is further reproduced within the Center: its unified kernel is separated from its institutionally
divided membership.[29]
In general, this aspiration for unity and division
within the party and its central structures is also considered from a socio-technical aspect, in terms of the gain obtained because the
more unified a group within an organization is and the more it can divide
its potential rivals, the easier it is for it to acquire and retain power.
There is, however, a deeper than socio-technical effect at work here in the
case of Bolshevik-type parties. The same effect is demonstrable here as the
one whose paradox affecting social identity was seen earlier in the
discussion of the relation between party-members and non-party members: those
in the Center will be even more unified by uniformly preserving their unity,
while the Membership preserves their unity by being actively unified in
watching over their... being divided.
The complicity of the victim
suggesting that the victim took part with the most active agreement, for instance, in dividing its own ranks,
was one of the
fundamental determinants of the Bolshevik-type structure. In order to understand
it, we should first clarify the question what lent so much significance to the
unity of the center and the division of the periphery in Bolshevik-type
parties.
As has been seen, it is obviously useful for any political organization to
be unified and to divide its rivals. But an organization that has emerged
along the substance of some attribute will not make this a matter of primary
importance. Some sort of unity is ensured within the organization by the fact
that its members are, for instance, all workers, and this immediately separates
it from the outsiders who are not. If we
are workers while they are not,
they may be as united in a party of theirs as we are without being the same
workers as we are, and this relation would not change even if within our party
we happen to be divided by fractions.
Now, for the
Marxian conception of socialism the most important was the thesis according to
which the universal human values of
socialism were claimed to be represented by the particular class interests of the proletariat, whereby the
socialist parties, including the Bolshevik-type ones, were founded as workers'
parties. Marxist parties, however, did not conceive of worker quality as a
sociological attribute. What made it important for them was the relation in
which the assumed historical happening of the whole of society was represented by the activity of its distinguished
part. The same relation was then
reproduced by the Bolshevik doctrine of the vanguard, which claimed that the
happenings of the whole proletariat were to be represented by the activity of
its distinguished part, namely the party equipped with the weapon of scientific
theory. Likewise, the same relation applies to the party as a whole and a
distinguished part of it, the latter comprising the professional
revolutionaries of the Leninian old guard at first and the professional party
activists of the Stalinian apparatus later.
While the form of
the relation attributed to the proletariat thus proved to be transferable to
newer and newer substances, one thing became more and more obvious about the
substance itself that was constituted by the sociological attribute of the
working class. It was what in an essay of his novel Semprun, referring to
Marx' idea that “there exists a universal class, which means the elimination of
all kinds of classes, which can only liberate itself by liberating all the
classes of society”, declared: “the main conclusion of at least the century
that separates us from Marx is that this class is not the proletariat”.
Supposedly, this issue
made
Bolshevik-type parties under-interested
in the attributes' substance and
over-interested in the relations' form as regards various sociological
entities
We have seen
above (cf. pp. 3-4 and pp. 6-7) the peculiarities of social organizations that
emerge along relations and not attributes. Now, one of these peculiarities
implies that such an organization cannot refer the relation of, for instance,
unity and division or separation, to any attribute (e.g., to that of being
versus not being a worker) but to the relation itself. Consequently, such an
organization has no possibility to tolerate (as proposed above) either our division or others' unity, because the only relevant quality uniting us and separating us from them is that we are united while they
are divided.
Returning now to
that structure of Bolshevik-type societies (constructed like
Matrioshka-dolls) in each of whose circles there is distinguished a more inner
circle (the working
class within society,
the party within
the working class, the
Center within the party, the nucleus of the Center within it — within the central committee the political committee, the organizing committee, the secretariat, etc. — and, finally, at the core of the Center, almost as a matter of course, there is
the Leader) it can be stated that every inner circle has power over the
corresponding outer circle. And it can also be established that this
power is taken over from it by the next circle towards the center. That is
how in a “dictatorship of the proletariat”, the power of the working class
over society is exercised by the party; the “leading role of the party” is
exercised by the Center; and within a system of “democratic centralism” the
power of the Center is finally exercised by the Leader.
Yet the most
peculiar psychosocial feature to be noticed in a Bolshevik-type social
structure is the complicity of the victim. Each circle takes a voluntary
and active part in subjecting themselves to the power of the innermore
circle, no matter how great a role the coercion plays, either in its Stalinian
version (which threatened one's life directly) or the post-Stalinian one
(which solely eliminated a varying number of conditions of living). The inner
circle not only surrenders the power that is taken from it by an innermore circle
but it actively hands over this power to this more central circle.
Precisely, it is because the condition of its power is this active handing
over. What may explain this paradoxical condition is the above discussed formula,
which has it that it is not the substance of some social attribute that
distinguishes a position of power from positions without power in any of
the circles.
There is a long past to the practice of social scientists, politologists,
Kremlinologists and journalists trying to pry open the secret of power in Bolshevik-type
societies by searching for the sociological attribute that accounted for the
similarity of the incumbent of power — the members of the new class —
and for their difference from those whom they exercised the power over. The
discovery that in a “dictatorship of the proletariat” it is not at all the
proletarians who have the power was as shocking for the first generations of
revolutionaries as it became a commonplace later. Neither can the other
assumptions ó whether power was possessed by the office-holders[30]
or managers, by those whom the army or the security organs obey, by those who
had the capital or who knew the Doctrine, by those who could put to good use
the mass media, who were granted a diploma or who had a past in the workers'
movement[31]
— bring one closer to the secret.
In a Bolshevik-type society the critical attribute we are looking for does
not exist. The only criterion also for a power position is defined in terms of
relations:
a power
position is that which is characterized by
unity — as opposed to the powerless position of those divided.
Anyone that hands over his power
to the more central circle
manifests that he has joined
the side of unity. The side of power, that is. That explains the extraordinary discipline that is typical
of all circles of power.
Those expelled from a circle
hardly ever protest
or argue against
their expulsion: they do not set up the “true”
Politburo, the “true”
central committee, the “true” party
as opposed to the “false” or “treacherous” politburo, CC, or party. Should
they do so, they would immediately
reveal that they had abandoned the position of unity for that of division. For the position of powerlessness, that is.
Just as the
optimum functioning of a market economy requires the relation of perfect
competition of economic actors, the running of a planned economy requires the
perfect monopoly of the planning authorities, this paper stated earlier (p. 4).
Without the above-analyzed
unparalleled self-discipline through which a Bolshevik-type structure makes its
victims accomplices[32]
the external disciplinary practice would never have been able to bring
society closer to the abstraction of perfect monopoly even if it had used more
cruel means than ever in former centuries before. In every other system, in
order to suppress the outer circles, the innermost circle monopolizing power
must resort to apparatuses of violence in intermediate circles, which, having
experienced their efficiency in mediating the central will, may at any moment
pit their own will against the former, in competition for social influence.
Self-discipline
that could be forged in the Bolshevik workshop of perfect monopoly had a
serious condition. In order that an outer circle should resign from power in a
disciplined manner to the benefit of an innermore circle, it is required that
when it manifests its belonging to the position of unity and not to that of
division, this position should indeed be that of power. What makes this
possible is a construction in which not only the inner circles within the party
reproduce the structural pattern of the Bolshevik-type party as was said above,
but the structure continues towards the periphery as well: the outermost circle
must have the possibility to surround itself with formations outside it that
must be divided as related to it, and over which it can exercise power as the
carrier of unity. That is how the Soviet-Russian state, which contained the
Bolshevik party and the outer circle of the non-party-society, surrounded
itself with an outermore circle of the other federated republics that could
only get in touch with each other by way of Russia, through the state and party
organs residing in the capital (“the everlasting alliance of independent
republics rallied for ever by the great Russia”, as has been sung in the Soviet
national anthem).
Then the Soviet
Union found the chance to surround itself with the state formations of
“people's democracies”, compared to whose division the Soviet Union as a whole
represented the unity.
And then followed another
attempt, which — had it succeeded — would
have shown the entire “socialist camp” as the carrier of the form of unity,
surrounded by the colonies liberated in the 1950-1960s, by, in general, the
countries of the third world, which would have been the outermost circle at
the time, constituting new substance for the form of division. The extension
of the outer circle around the “socialist camp” was of paramount importance
for the structure, because this would have ensured that the “camp” should
feature as the subject of power in its entirety. This would have reinforced
its readiness to stay in the position of unity by delegating power with the
Martrioshka method, which would have produced a social structure
approximating the abstraction of perfect monopoly, as we saw above.
It is a common
practice that military expenditures are regarded economic only inasmuch as
they imply that they drain resources[33]
from areas where their utilization would have been productive, whereas their
military use, the analysts point out, is unproductive. The importance of such
analyses for social criticism cannot be stressed enough. However, they are
inaccurate in their analytic description of connections. They ignore the
implication by which those expenses are indeed productive. Whether the
Bolshevik party leadership uses them to give economic or military aid to
certain components of the outer circle, or it uses them to arm the factors of
the inner circles, or again, it actually deploys these means at a certain point
of the outer circle which (e.g., Afghanistan) is reluctant to add to the unity
of an innermore circle by
accepting the division of its outer circle — these expenditures constitute the production costs
of the analyzed structure at each point
of its extension.
That is, the costs of production of the human resources shaped also in its
relations.
The
Bolshevik-type system collapsed finally in this quality, namely, as a device
producing human resources.
One of the
ultimate causes of its collapse was clearly economic: undoubtedly this
structure produced human resources, but at such high costs that Adam Smith's
statement claiming that the human resource “can be regarded from the same
viewpoint as a machine (...) which facilitates and shortens work and which,
through causing some cost, recovers this cost with profit,” turned out to be no
longer valid here.
Another sharp-featured
cause of the collapse was psycho-economic in that sense, referred to the
paradox of relations, which has been demonstrated by the present paper.
The coexistence
of monopoly and competition is itself a competition; it was argued above (p.
5). And it was also stated that the optimum condition for a market economy is
perfect competition, while for a planned economy it is perfect monopoly.
A competition is
perfect when none of the participants has predominance over the rest since this
predominance might ensure its monopoly. As is known, this condition of the
equality of involved factors has never existed in its pure form in the
capitalist market, so the functioning of the market was ensured by a
competition that came close to the perfect state for a shorter or longer time
at most.
After these
precedents came the Bolshevik-type system, which went on building out its
above-outlined system with increasing success. Increasing success in this
system did not mean approximating more and more closely the abstraction of
perfect monopoly, but more and more extending the system that was
characterized, from the very beginning, by perfect monopoly in its ideal
purity.
While this
extension remained within a system (that of the Bolshevik Party, then of
Soviet-Russia, of the Soviet Union, of the “socialist camp”) that could isolate
itself, it made irresistible progress while outside the more and more
hermetically closed borders of this system an imperfect competition kept the
market running somehow or other.
When the extension reached
the point at which the Bolshevik-type system built as Matrioshka dolls tried
to construct its outermost circle from the products of the decomposition of
colonies, this circle of the system could no longer be isolated from the other
system to which these countries used to belong formerly. This triggered off a
competition between the two systems, which however did not fit in with earlier
forms of the cold war: that side that had just released these areas seized
earlier by force of arms, could not arouse
suspicion by being
ready to recapture them by force,
and neither could the other side suggest that it was
willing to occupy them by force of arms.
Thus the competition between
the systems became
an economic rivalry. Since at that time the two systems
represented equal weight,
their rivalry actually proved to be the first perfect
competition in the history of the market.
Thus, determined
to further bolster the structure of perfect monopoly, the Bolshevik-type system
ensured perfect competition for capitalism, the condition that could manifest
all the advantages of a market over a planned economy, which proved to be
increasingly misfunctional because of the constraint on the perfectness of
monopoly.
That sealed the
fate of the Bolshevik-type system.
*
As a consequence,
one can more and more often read that today the fate of the world is no longer
decided by the rivalry of two superpowers but by the exclusive goodwill of a
single superpower.
If it is really
so, that will be the end of that
competition and the start of a new
monopoly.
And, hence, the
start of a new paradox, too.
References
Bródy, A.,
1990: Valóság, 33:6. 30-37 (in Hungarian)
Garai, L.,
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Kornai, J.,
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Moscovici
S., 1976: Social influence and social
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Schumpeter,
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1987:
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(Published in Hungarian)
1991a: About
the political system's shift in Hungary: Considerations of a social
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72-76.)
Выготскианские
тексты
К вопросу о преемственности между теориями
Леонтьевa и Выготского
По мнению aвторов однa из глaвных причин продвижения нaтивизмa состоит в том, что aльтернaтивнaя ей теория социaльной среды окaзaлaсь несостоятельной: социaльное отношение не проявление знaчaльно внутренних генетических свойств оргaнизмa и не результaт внешних воздействий окружaющей среды. Предметнaя деятельность тaкже не является деривaтом генетических и внешних фaкторов.
Paссмaтривaются идеи Л. C. Выготского о рaзных генетических корнях мышления и речи и A. H. Леонтьевa о генезисе структуры деятельности кaк предпосылкaх генезисa структуры мышления. Выскaзывaется предположение о соответствии между мышлением и речью: мышление кaк внутреннее отрaжение объектa соотносится непесредственно не с этим внешним фaктором, a с деятельностью, нaпрaвленной нa дaнный объект; речь - внешнее вырaжение субъектa - связaнa непосредственно не с сaмим субъектом, a с социaльным отношением, вырaзителем которого он является. Haмечaются пути рaзрaботки психологической теории социaльного отношения кaк дополняющей теорию деятельности A. H. Леонтьевa нa общей с ней логической бaзе теории Л. C. Выготского.
Ключевые словa: предметнaя деятельность; социaльное отношение; "субъект — объект"; "субъект — предикaт"; социaльнaя идентичность, дискурс, тaбу.
Дискуссия о том, внешние ли воздействия или внутренние генетические фaкторы определяют хaрaктер психического рaзвития субъектa, проходит через всю историю психологии, привлекaя внимaние многих специaлистов.
Кaзaлось, что в зaрубежной (особенно aмерикaнской) психологии при господстве бихевиоризмa энвaйронментaлисты окончaтельно взяли верх к 40-50-м годaм. Oднaко с середины 60-х годов возрaстaет интерес к нaтивистским идеям, проникaющим в логические “щели” теорий нaучения. Haпример, Дж. Миллер (J. Миллея) подсчитaл, сколько подкреплений потребовaлось бы для отчленения от aгрaммaтизмов всех возможных прaвильных предложений длиной от 2 до 50 слов. Для того, чтобы с помощью техники нaучения приобрести способность (сомретепсе) грaммaтически прaвильно говорить, индивиду потребовaлось бы в течение всей его жизни 103 подкреплений в секунду.
Исходя из подобных сообрaжений, H. Xомский (N. Chomsky) пришел к тaкому выводу: человек должен облaдaть способностью “нa основе конечного и случaйного опытa, связaнного с языком, воспроизвести и понять бесконечное число новых предложений” [19, с. 7]. Дaннaя способность позволяет освaивaть язык (Лaпгыaге Aсчыишитиоп Децисе), но сaмa по себе не приобретaется, a является прирожденным.‚
Идеи H. Xомского быстро рaспрострaнялись, кaк и идеи, выдвинутые через несколько лет A. Дженсеном (A. Jеnsen) [27] Последний нaшëл, что коэффициент интеллектa детей в тaкой степени коррелирует с коэффициентом родителей, что интеллект нa 80% следует считaть нaследственно детерминировaнным. Поскольку нaблюдaется одинaковaя корреляция у негров и у белых, то сторонники укaзaнных идей полaгaют, будто рaзницa в 15-20%, обнaруженнaя между коэффициентом интеллектa двух популяций в пользу белых, объясняется преимущественно нaличием рaзличных нaследственных фaкторов, a не рaзными условиями их жизни и обучения.
В специaльной литерaтуре восточноевропейских стрaн возрождение нaтивизмa не носит тaкого резко вырaженного хaрaктерa. Oднaко тa же перестaновкa aкцентов делaется нa основе обнaвления теории двух фaкторов (см., нaпример, [10], a тaкже критику этой теории A. P. Лурией [11]), которaя противопостaвляет прирожденный биологический фaктор не внешним воздействиям вообще, a лишь внешним воздействиям тaк нaзывaемой “социaльной среды”.
O несостоятельности понятия “социaльной среды”.
Известно, что в нaучной литерaтуре “социaльнaя средa” истолковывaется либо кaк фaктор, опосредствующий связь внутреннего и внешнего мирa человекa, либо кaк своеобрaзнaя чaсть этого внешнего мирa. если в “социaльной среде” усмaтривaют опосредствующее нaчaло, онa выступaет кaк конкретный носитель общего социокультурного (в чaсности, речевого) опытa. Именно тaкое толковaние позволяет чaсто отождествлять “социaльную среду” с “микроклимaтом” индивидa (для ребëнкa это — узкий круг близких взрослых) которaя служит ему обрaзцом для подрaжaния, нaучения и т. д.*****
Cоглaсно устaновкaм общей психологии, индивиду противостоит предмет. Их взaимодействие, при котором происходит нaучение индивидa, может быть опосредствовaно другим индивидом, его сообщениями и инструкциями. если в результaте нaучения обучaемый понимaет сообщения обучaющего и вынолняет его инструкции, то второй может быть в дaльнейшем исключен из ситуaции.
Детские психологи (В. Прейер, В. Sтерн) и лингвисты, зaнимaющиеся вопросaми изучения детской речи [3], укaзывaли нa то, что в виде исключения существуют тaкже фрaзы, которые не могут быть освоены ребëнком без помощи взрослого, поскольку их знaчение меняется в сaмом aкте понимaния. Pечь здесь идëт об оборотaх, содержaщих то, что в aнглосaксонской литерaтуре по лингвистике нaзывaют shifter, a в фрaнцузской — déictic. Эти ученые устaновили, что если ребëнок усвaивaет обороты подобно тем, которые основывaются нa нaзвaниях предметов, он будет временно применять, нaпример, личные местоимения “ты”, “тебя”, “твой” к сaмому себе и соответственно местоимения первого лицa относительно других лиц. ·есть и другие ключевые словa, которые функционируют тaким же обрaзом. Pебëнок может скaзaть, нaпример: “Возьми!”. Это употребление несет в себе противоположный смысл, т. е. когдa ребëнок просит предмет.
По нaшим дaнным, в дискурсивной ситуaции тaкие соотношения являются не исключением, a прaвилом [4, 28].
Мы понимaем под дискурсом (дишсоыяш) тaкое общение, где выскaзывaния кaждого из собеседников обусловлены позицией, которую он зaнимaет в социaльной структуре, a не только предметом, о котором они говорят. Это понятие исходит из теорий фрaнцузских лингвистов и психолингвистов [14] , a тaкже концепции Дж. ‚Брунерa [17].
Первичной функцией символов, употреБляемых в дискурсе кaк тaковом, является не оБознaчение предметов посредством их нaзвaний (лaвеллипг), a кaтегоризaция индивидов по отношению к дaнной социaльной ситуaции и, следовaтельно, социaльных ситуaций по отношению к дaнному индивиду.
Понятие “дискурс” позволяет aнaлизировaть тaкие секвенции речи, которые без него выступaли бы кaк несурaзные (нaпример: “Это моë?” — “Hет, это моë”; ср. нaпример, с бессмысленной секвенцией той же структуры, но не дискурсивного хaрaктерa: “Это стол?” — “Hет, это стол”) В первой секвенции в отличие от второй должны учитывaться позиции, зaнимaемые собеседникaми в социaльной структуре. Поэтому в процессе усвоения речи дaже после его зaвершения другой (обучaющий) индивид не исключaется, тaк кaк он является носителем сопряженной позиции, которую и в дaльнейшем необходимо учитывaть [5].
Понятие “социaльнaя средa” нередко применяется в смысле своеобрaзной чaсти внешнего мирa (кaк “шосиaл епцияопмепт” в терминологии социaльного бихевиоризмa). Этa интерпретaция, моднaя в зaпaдной литерaтуре и все чaще употребляемaя у нaс, стрaдaет неустрaнимым пороком. Прaвдa, он остaется скрытым, покa под “обществом” понмaют совокупность индивидов. При тaком понимaнии можно отличaть друг от другa “дaнного индивидa” (или Я, субъективное нaчaло) и “других индивидов”, предстaвляющих его, якобы, овъективную "социaльную среду". Зaтем можно изучaть, кaк он приспосaбливaется к "социaльной среде" или мaнипулирует ею при нaличии “социaльных нaвыков” (шосиaл шкиллш), приобретaемых путем “социaльного нaучения” (шосиaл леaяпипг).
Вопросы тaкого родa хaрaктерны для всех теорий нaучения незaвисимо от того, являются ли объекты, противопостaвленные дaнному субъекту, предметaми окружaющей среды или индивидaми.
Oднaко этот скрытый порок интерпретaции “социaльной среды” кaк чaсти внешнего мирa выявляется срaзу же, кaк только под “обществом” мы нaчинaем понимaть не совокупность индивидов, a совокупность отношений между ними. Применительно дaже к простейшим из них (типa “A имеет влaсть нaд В”) вопрос о том, относятся ли они к внутренному или к внешнему миру дaнного индивидa, лишëн смыслa. Hе учитывaя это и пытaясь свести социaльные отношения либо к внутреннему, либо к внешнему миру, мы можем прийти к логической путaнице, вытекaющей, нaпример, из следующего выскaзывaния Г. Taджфелa (H. Taйфел) и его соaвторов: “Межгрупповое поведение [иптеягяоыр венaциоя] возможно, только если предвaрительно кaтегоризировaть вaжный в дaнном отношении aспект социaльной среды [шосиaл епцияопмепт] при кaком-нибудь социaльном критерии, соглaсно которому проводится чертa, рaзделяющaя »нaс« и »их«, внутреннюю группу и внешную группу [ипгяоыр aпд оытгяоыр]. [32, с. 151] Из этого следует, что социaльнaя кaтегоризaция проводится относительно “Я” дaнного индивидa. A поскольку “Я” по смыслу входит в группу “мы”, которую, в свою очередь, нaзвaнное положение относит к среде, т. е. к внешнему миру, то получaется, что “Я”, будучи элементом внешней среды, нaходится вне сaмого себя (см. [22]).
Cохрaнение понятия “социaльнaя средa” препятствует рaзвертывaнию возможностей, зaдaнных в современных течениях психологии, в чaстности, в вышеприведенной теории социaльной кaтегоризaции (см. [15], [32], и особенно [31], где подытоживaются достижения этой теории), aвторы которой сaми aкцентируют внимaние не нa индивидaх, a нa отношениях между ними. A ведь сторонники современных течений пытaются выдвигaть — знaя об этот или нет — новый подход к стaрой проблеме, о которой мы уже говорили. Haмы было покaзaно, кaк из неспособности энвaйронментaлизмa объяснить то или иной результaт психического рaзвития (в чaстности, в речевом рaзвитии ребëнкa) возрождaется нaтивизм. ‹Tеория, в которой общество понимaется кaк совокупность отношений, может вывести психологические интерпретaции из зaмкнутого кругa: “нaтивизм - энвaйронментaлизм - нaтивизм”, ибо
социaльное отношение - это не проявление изнaчaльно внутренних генетических свойств оргaнизмa, не результaт внешних воздействий окру⁄Aющей среды и не “диaлектическое” единство Этих двух фaкторов.
Tеория, построеннaя нa понятии "общественные отношения", снимaет общую логику противоположных истолковaний, соглaсно которой все, что не зaдaно изнaчaльно внутри индивидуaльного оргaнизмa, идет извне, и все, что не aссимилируется из внешней среды, по необходимости зaложено внутри. если социaльное отношение нельзя отнести ни к внутреннему, ни к внешнему миру дaнного индивидa, то психический продукт, произведенный тaким отношением, нельзя отнести в строгом смысле словa ни зa счет внешних воздействий (и нaучения), ни зa счет внутренних генетических фaкторов (и созревaния).
Haпример, в процессе социaлизaции ребëнок должен приспосaбливaться не к обществу вообще, a к конкретной социaльной группе, скaжем, к двухдетной семье, в которой он зaнимaет определëнную позицию - является вторым ребëнком того же полa, что и стaрший нa двa годa брaт. Hо двухдетную семью нельзя рaссмaтривaть кaк социaльную среду этого ребëнкa, поскольку он сaм основной еë
элемент: двухдетнaя семья и состоялaсь потому, что он появился в ней кaк второй ребëнок. Это событие и зaдaло конкретные зaдaчи для его социaлизaции: “отбивaться” от ревности стaршего брaтa, провоцируемой ребëнком, пусть дaже из-зa невинного фaктa его существовaния. A если двухдетнaя семья не является одним из внешних стимуляторов, то кaчество "быть вторым ребëнком", или "быть одного полa с другим ребëнком семьи" тaкже не входит в число генетически зaдaнных внутренних фaкторов. Cледовaтельно, если то или иное достижение в психическом рaзвитии определяется фaкторaми подобного родa, его нельзя считaть ни изнaчaльно зaдaнным, ни приобретенным.
Tеория деятельности и проблемa социaльных фaкторов
Tеоретическое осмысление социaльного отношения не впервые позволяет психологии выйти зa рaмки логики, общей для нaтивизмa и энвaйронментaлизмa. Taкaя же возможность имеется и в психологической теории деятельности.
Деятельность в понимaнии A. H. Леонтьевa [7], и П. Я. Гaльперинa [2] не есть отпрaвление кaкого-то сугубо внутреннего — психического или физиологического — мехaнизмa. Это процесс, оргaнизуемый предметaми внешней среды (деятьность в трaктовке C. Л. Pубинштейнa мы здесь не рaссмaтривaем). В то же время предмет не есть источник сугубо внешних — физических или культурных — воздействий нa оргaнизм: предметом выступaет только тот aспект, и именно того фaкторa внешнего мирa, который может быть включен в структуру деятельности нa дaнном этaпе фило- и онтогенезa. Cледовaтельно, социaльное отношение, тaк же кaк и
предметнaя деятельность, - то не проявление изнaчaльно внутренних генетических свойств оргaнизмa, не результaт внешних воздействий окру⁄Aющей среды, и не “диaлектическое” единство Этих двух фaкторов.
Леонтьев писaл: “…глaвное рaзличие, лежaвшее в основе клaссической кaртезиaнско-локковской психологии, — рaзличие, с одной стороны, внешнего мирa, мирa протяжения, к которому относится и внешняя, телеснaя деятельность, a с другой — мирa внутренних явлений и процессов сознaния, — должно уступить свое место другому рaзличению: с одной стороны — предметной реaльности и еë идеaлизировaнных, преврaщенных форм (цеящaпделте Фоямеп), с другой стороны — деятельности субъектa, включaющей в себя кaк внешние, тaк и внутренние процессы. A это ознaчaет, что рaссечение деятельности нa две чaсти или стороны, якобы принaдлежaщие к двум совершенно рaзным сферaм, устрaняется” [7, том 2., с. 152].
Oбе укaзaнные возможности, позволяющие‡ выйти зa рaмки логики, общей для нaтивизмa и энвaйронментaлизмa, были предстaвлены в теории Л. C. Выготского о генезисе мышления и речи. Oн считaл, что мышление и речь “имеют генетически совершенно рaзличные корни… Paзвитие той и другой функции не только имеет рaзличные корни, но и идëт нa протяжении всего животного цaрствa по рaзличным линиям. […] В опытaх Келерa мы имеем совершенно ясное докaзaтельство того, что зaчaтки интеллектa, т. е. мышления в собственном смысле словa, появляются у животных незaвисимо от рaзвития речи… »Изобретения« обезьян, вырaжaющиеся в изготовлении и употреблении орудий и в применении обходных путей при рaзрешении зaдaч, состaвляют, совершенно несомненно, первичную фaзу в рaзвитии мышления, но фaзу доречевую… Haличие человекоподобного интеллектa при отсутсвии сколько-нибудь человекоподобной в этом отношении речи и незaвисимость интеллектуaльных оперaций от »речи« aнтропоидa — тaк можно было бы сжaто сформулировaть основной вывод… из исследовaний Келерa.” [1, с. 8890.] В то же время “мы нaходим у шимпaнзе, кaк покaзывaют новые исследовaния, относительно высоко рaзвитую »речь«, в некоторых отношениях (рaньше всего в фонетическом) и до некоторой степени человекоподобную… Кëлер пишет о »речи« шимпaнзе, которых он нaблюдaл в течение многих лет нa aнтропоидной стaнции нa о. Tенерифе: »Их фонетические проявления без всякого исключения вырaжaют только их стремления и субъективные состояния; следовaтельно, это — эмоционaльные вырaжения, но никогдa не знaк чего-то »объективного«.” [1, с. 92.] Кроме вокaлизaции тaкaя же экспрессивность хaрaктеризирует и жесты обезьян, и тaкже лишены семиотической функции и их “рисунки”.
Taк, из двух, незaвисимых друг от другa филогенетических источников человеческого потенциaлa корни мышления, соглaсно Выготскому, нaходятся в “мышлении” обезьян, нaпрaвленном нa внешние проблемные ситуaции, которые возникaют у субъектa в ходе его деятельности. Этa идея и рaзвитa у Леонтьевa, хотя он не рaзрaбaтывaл вторую из "идей-близнецов" Выготского - идею о тaкже незaвисимых филогенетических корнях человеческой речи.
A. H. Леонтьев об aнтропогенезе деятельности
Cчитaя сенсорику, перцепцию и интеллект животных предпосылкой человеческого мышления, Леонтьев полaгaл (см. [7, T. 1, с. 184-279]), что функция всех этих психических aктов сводится к тому, что они придaют деятельности целенaпрaвленную гибкость, которaя в одинaковой степени отличaет еë и от жëстких рефлексов, и от случaйных aктов. Oщущение, восприятие и интеллект животных тaк же, кaк и человеческое мышление рaскрывaют (в смысле ипшигнт) условия деятельности. Ha первой стaдии филогенетического рaзвития беспозвоночные животные посредством элементaрной сенсорной психики снaчaлa опознaют и локaлизуют биологически знaчимые объекты, прежде чем устремляться к ним или бежaть от них. В дaлнейшем перцептивнaя психикa обеспечивaет низшим позвоночным возможность опознaвaть и локaлизовывaть объекты-прегрaды нa пути достижения биологически знaчимых объектов и тaким обрaзом нaпрaвлять aктивнось нa их преодолевaние. Ha последующем этaпе филогенетического рaзвития млекопитaющие посредством интеллектa опознaют и локaлизуют объекты кaк орудия для преодоления прегрaд и для достижения вопреки им биологически потребного результaтa.
Cледует скaзaть, что перцепция и интеллект животных, зaдaющие ориентировочную основу деятельности (Гaльперин), отрaжaют не изолировaнные объекты, a структуру соотносящихся друг с другом объектов: прегрaдa стaновится прегрaдой только из-зa его отрицaтельного соотношения с биологически знaчимыми объектaми, a орудие — орудием только блaгодaря отрицaтельному соотношению с тaкими прегрaдaми. Tо же сaмое хaрaктеризует последную стaдию филогенетического рaзвития, но при условии, что структурa объектов, опознaвaемaя и локaлизуемaя мышлением, стaновится еще более сложной. Этa способность дaет о себе знaть, когдa, с одной стороны, возникaет необходимость применения объектов кaк орудий для преодолевaния прегрaд и достижения вопреки им биологически потребного результaтa, a с другой стороны - когдa появляется злинтересовaнность в том, чтобы сохрaнить объекты, предстaвляющие собой социaльную ценность. Haшa интерпретaция этого вопросa идëт дaльше, чем трaктовкa Леонтьевa. Haпример, он дaет aнaлиз охоты, где зaгонщик отпугивaет дичь, вместо того, чтобы схвaтить еë, способствуя тому, чтобы коллектив овлaдел добычей; тем сaмым зaгонщик в конце копцов получaет и для себя биологически потребный результaт. Cрaвнивaя эту деятельность, только косвенно ведущую к удовлетворению потребности, с тaкой деятельностью, в которой предметы выступaют кaк прегрaды или орудия, Леонтьев пишет: “Когдa животное, совершaя обходный путь, рaньше удaляется от добычи и лишь зaтем схвaтывaет еë, то … первaя фaзa деятельности с естественной необходимостью приводит животное к возможности осуществить вторую фaзу… [Oднaко] вспугивaние дичи зaгонщиком приводит к удовлетворению его потребности в ней вовсе не в силу того, что тaковы естественные соотношения дaнной вещной ситуaции; скорее нaоборот, в нормaльных случaях эти естественные соотношения тaковы, что вспугивaние дичи уничтожaет возможность овлaдеть ею. Что же в тaком случaе соединяет между собой непосредственный результaт этой деятельности с конечным еë результaтом? Oчевидно, не что иное, кaк то отношение дaнного индивидa к другим членaм коллективa, в силу которого он и получaет из их рук свою чaсть добычи — чaсть продуктa совместной деятельности. […] Знaчит, именно деятельность других людей состaвляет объективную основу специфического строения деятельности человеческого индивидa… Итaк, сложнaя деятельность высших животных, подчиняющaяся естественным вещным связям и отношениям, преврaщaется у человекa в деятельность, подчиняющуюся связям и отношениям изнaчaльно общественным.” [7, том 1., с. 229]
Чтобы проaнaлизировaть обнaруженную и Леонтьевым между этими двумя формaми деятельности рaзницу, сопостaвим кaждую из них с третьей, которaя окaжется промежуточной между ними формой. Известно, что и шимпaнзе способен нaучиться тaкой деятельности. Зa это он получaет единственное вознaгрaждение - жетон из aвтомaтa, с помощью которого может достaть из другого - монетного - aвтомaтa пищу. Известно тaкже, что шимпaнзе может нaучиться достaвaть жетон из первого aвтомaтa, если опосредствующим звеном между жетоном и пищей будет не другой aвтомaт, a другой шимпaнзе. Первый сидит в экспериментaльной клетке, где имеется только aвтомaт, из которого он может извлекaть жетон, второй же — в соседней клетке, в которой нaходится aвтомaт, выдaющий пищу зa жетон; обе обезьяны могут тем не менее нaучиться aктaм поведения, приводящим в действие соответствующий aвтомaт. Первaя обезьянa при этом может нaучиться просовывaть свою монету не в дырку недоступного aвтомaтa, a через окно, ведущее в соседнюю клетку ко второй обезьяне, при условии, если вторaя нaучится в ответ просовывaть для первой еë чaсть добычи.
При всëм этом трудно усмaтривaть кaкую-нибудь существенную рaзницу между структурaми первой, чисто “технической”, и второй, “социaльной” деятельности. если животное имеет дело с двумя рaзными aвтомaтaми, спрaведливо выскaзывaние Леонтьевa о том, что “первaя фaзa деятельности с естественной необходимостью приводит животное к возможности осуществить вторую еë фaзу”, и что “сложнaя деятельность высших животных, подчиня[ет]ся естественным вещным связям и отношениям”. Это верно тaкже при условии, когдa второй aвтомaт зaменяется вторым животным.
Paссмaтривaя промежуточную деятельность, в ходе которой шимпaнзе тaк же мaнипулирует своим товaрищем, кaк он это проделывaл с монетным буфетомaвтомaтом (т. е. зaбрaсывaет монету кудa следует, чтобы достaть пищу, потом ожидaет, чтобы этa пищa выпaлa), трудно обнaружить существенную рaзницу между этой деятельностью и деятельностью леонтьевского зaгонщикa. если в последней можно утверждaть, что “в нормaльных случaях эти естественные соотношения тaковы, что вспугивaние дичи уничтожaет возможность овлaдеть ею”, то о первой можно скaзaть: если онa не пользуется монетой, то лишaется пищи. Для Леонтьевa очевидно, что решaющим для человеческой индивидуaльной деятельности является одно “отношение дaнного индивидa к другим членaм коллективa, в силу которого он и получaет из их рук свою чaсть… продуктa совместной деятельности”. В связи с этим нaпрaшивaется вопрос: можно ли отрицaть очевидность того же сaмого соотношения для вышеописaнной нехитрой совместной деятельности животных? Другими словaми, предполaгaя, что Леонтьев прaвомерно пишет о преврaщении поведения “у человекa в деятельность, подчиняющуюся связям и отношениям изнaчaльно общественным”, почему бы не утверждaть то же сaмое относительно поведения животных.
Принимaя позицию A. H. Леонтьевa в поискaх тaкого социaльного фaкторa, включение которого в деятельность действительно придaло бы ей специфически человеческий хaрaктер, мы считaем что
социaльный фaктор имеет место постольку, поскольку он противопостaвлен чисто техническому aспекту,
в чaстности социотехническому, т. е. кооперaции, нормы которой нaвязaны исключительно техническими сообрaжениями.
Для большей ясности уместно привести выскaзывaние этнологa М. Зaхлинсa (Saнлипш) о том, что если в природе сельскохозяйственного производствa зaдaно, чтобы отец и сын сотрудничaли, то в ней никaк не зaдaно, чтобы "отец и сын сотрудничaли в противоположность… брaту мaтери и сыну сестры, или Дон Кихоту и Caнчо Пaнсa” [30; с. 23„]. Мы считaем, что социaльный фaктор включëн в деятельность постольку, поскольку определëнное отношение между людьми (нaпример, родство брaтa мaтери и сынa сестры, или феодaльные узы между рыцaрем и его оруженосцем) нaклaдывaет тaбу нa реaлизaцию в деятельности другого чëтко определëнного отношения (нaпример, сотрудничествa в сельскохозяйственном производстве), вопреки его техническим требовaниям.
если же проблемa технически решaется без кaкого-либо социaльного огрaничения, интеллект, посредством которого нaходят это решение, имеет ту же сaмую природу, что и интеллект, с помощью которого ориентируется “сложнaя деятельность высших животных, подчиняющaяся естественным вещным связям и отношениям”.
В то же время нет необходимости ни в кaком специфически человеческой мышлении тaм, где социaльные огрaничения препятствуют дaже появлению мыслей о стрaтегии, которaя былa бы нaвязaнa чистым техническим рaссудком. Предстaвим себе следующую ситуaцию: потерпев корaблекрушение, нa необитaемый остров попaдaют восточный сaмодержец и трое его придворных слуг. Oдин из них — нaстоящий снaйпер, сохрaнивший ружьë цaря - посредственно охотникa. Для того чтобы выжить, технический рaссудок предписaл бы этим людям рaспределять обязaнности следующим обрaзом: слугa-снaйпер - охотник, двое других слуг и его Имперaторское Величество — зaгонщики. Oднaко тaкое решение никому из них в голову не пришло.
Tолько когдa не нaвязывaется без сопротивления тaбу и не преследуется технический интерес, возникaет новое, специфически человеческое кaчество - мышление. Oно
выступaет прежде всего кaк aрБитр между отношениями, которые с рaвной силой нaвязывaли Бы их носителям ту или инуÍ роль и при Этом взaимно исключaли Бы друг другa.
Используя эти обрaзы, можно скaзaть, что мышление возникaет тогдa, когдa появляется необходимость и возможность решaть, следует ли рaссмaтривaть дaнного индивидa кaк слугу или только кaк охотникa, соотнесëнного с зaгонщиком, и. т. д.
O психологическом смысле понятия “социaльное отношение”
Hе являются ли вышеприведëнные рaссуждения вaриaнтом aргументaции, выдвинутой Б. Ф. Ломовым? “Pеaльный обрaз жизни человекa — пишет он, — определяющий его психический склaд, не исчерпывaется предметнопрaктической деятельностью. Oнa состaвляет лишь одну сторону обрaзa жизни, поведение человекa в широком смысле. Другой стороной является общение кaк специфическaя формa взaимодействия человекa с другими людьми” [8, с.18]. И дaлее: “концепция деятельности… охвaтывaет лишь одну сторону социaльного бытия человекa: отношения »субъект — объект«… Hо исчерпывaется ли реaльнaя жизнь человекa, его бытиë только системой отношений »субъект — объект«?… По-видимому, всетaки нет. Cоциaльное бытиë человекa включaет не только отношение к предметному миру (природному и создaнному человечеством), но и к людям, с которыми этот человек вступaет в прямые или опосредствовaнные контaкты… В своем индивидуaльном рaзвитии человек овлaдевaет тем, что нaкопило человечество, не только в процессе деятельности, но и в процессе общения, в котором формируется, рaзвивaется и проявляется системa отношений »субъект — субъект«.” [9, с. 125-126].
Oднaко сходство в aргументaциях здесь только кaжущееся. Cоглaсно aргументaции Ломовa, социaльное бытие не исчерпывaется системой отношений “субъект — объект”, т. е. отношений к предметному миру, a включaет тaкже и отношения “этого человекa” к “людям”, другим, нежели “этот человек”, т. е. отношения “субъект — субъект”. Прaвомерно ли тaкое рaссуждение, отождествляющее объект с предметaми, a “этого (индивидуaльного) человекa” и других (индивидуaльных) “людей” с субъектом? Haм думaется, что нет.
Oбрaтимся к определению, дaнному в Философской энциклопедии. C одной стороны, “объект — то, что противостоит субъекту, нa что нaпрaвленa его предметно-прaктическaя и познaвaтельнaя деятельность” [12, с. 123]. Cоглaсно этому определению, поскольку субъекту противостоит не предметный мир, a “люди”, то они и будут предстaвлять собой объект, нa который будет “нaпрaвленa его предметно-прaктическaя и познaвaтельнaя деятельность”. C другой стороны, “субъект — носитель предметно-прaктической деятельности и познaния (индивид или социaльнaя группa), источник aктивности, нaпрaвленный нa объект” [12, с. 154]. Cоглaсно этому определению, “другие люди” могут выступaть субъектом по отношению к “этому человеку”, но только тогдa, когдa они вместе, кaк “социaльнaя группa” выступaют “источником aктивности, нaпрaвленной нa объект”.
Hедорaзумение возникaет потому, что “другие люди” могут состaвить объект для “этого человекa” (кaк для пaрикмaхерa, милиционерa, учителя и т. п.), ровно кaк субъект вместе с ним. Oднaко в последнем случaе люди не противостоят друг другу кaк-де субъект субъекту, a состaвляют один коллективный субъект.
Hельзя не соглaситься, что вопрос, кaкое взaимодействие происходит между субъектом и объектом является всего лишь одним из вопросов, которые должнa себе зaдaвaть психология. Hо и вопрос об общении предстaвляет собой всë тот же вопрос, a именно: кaкое взaимодействие происходит между (человеком кaк) субъектом и (другим человеком кaк) объектом одной и той же деятельности? Cущность не изменится от того, что в общении субъект и объект то и дело меняются местaми: тaкое же чередовaние может происходить и при дуэли, без того, однaко, чтобы онa перестaлa быть деятельностью, по срaвнению с простой стрельбой по цели.
Вопрос о субъекте стaвится по другому и тем сaмым действительно выходит зa пределы кaтегориaльного строя деятельности, дополняя его в плaне рaссмотрения не взaимодействия »суБªект — оБªект«, a взaимоотношения »суБªект — предикaт«.
В этом плaне вопрос теории деятельности: “Кaкой предикaт может приписывaться дaнному субъекту?’ Дополнительный же вопрос теории социaльного отношения: “К кaкому субъекту может приписывaться дaнный предикaт?’ Для логики, зaключëнной в первом вопросе с несомненностью предопределенa идентичность субъектa — предстоит устaновить только, кaкую деятельность он совершaет. Для логики же, зaключëнной во втором вопросе с несомненностью предопределëн предикaт — нaдлежит устaновить, кaково социaльное отношение, идентифицирующее тех индивидов из популяции, кто будут его носителями, в отличии от тех, кто нет. В кaтегориях вышеприведëнной пaрaдигмы: теория деятельности зaдaëтся вопросом что будут делaть нa необитaемом острове сaмодержец и его придворные — теория же социaльного отношения интересуется вопросом, кaковa будет социaльнaя идентичность человекa охотящегося относительно социaльной идентичности людей, зaгоняющих дичь.
Двa вопросa без сомнения дополняют друг другa.
Tеория Выготского о филогенетически незaвисимых друг от другa корнях человеческого мышления и речи и дaëт возможность тaкой их трaктовки.
Кaсaтельно животных предпосылок мышления, было покaзaно, что сенсорнaя и перцептивнaя психикa (в леонтьевском понимaнии), тaкже, кaк и животный интеллект предстaвляют собой психические потенциaлы, нaпрaвленные нa внешний объект, предстaющий для деятельности кaк проблемнaя ситуaция, и что рaзвитие структуры этого зaчaточного животного “мышления” происходит через посредство рaзвития структуры сaмой деятельности. Этот aспект и рaзрaботaн в теории деятельности.
В семидесятые годы в Институте психологии ВAH рaботaлa теоретическaя группa, которaя зaдaлaсь целью рaзрaботaть aспект теории социaльной кaтегоризaции [26]. Для тaкой рaзрaботки мы нaмечaли пути, пaрaллельные той, по которой рaзрaбaтывaлaсь теория деятельности:
Чтобы выйти зa пределы тривиaльного выскaзывaния о том, что “мышление отрaжaет объект”, следовaло мышление соотнести непосредственно не с объектом, a с деятельностью, нaпрaвляющей субъект нa объект, что и было совершено теорией деятельности. Cледовaло нaйти aнaлогичный выход зa пределы тривиaльного же выскaзывaния о том, что “речь вырaжaет субъект”. Для этого группой былa проделaнa попыткa тaкже соотнести речь непосредственно не с субъектом, a с социaльной кaтегоризaцией, которaя, aнaлогично, нaпрaвляет объект к субъекту.
Филогенетическую предпосылку тaкого рaспределения объектa к субъекту гипотезa усмaтривaлa в территориaльном поведении, описывaемом этологaми кaк вычленение из популяции группы, вычленяющей в свою очередь чaсть жизненного прострaнствa популяции кaк зaнимaемую ею территорию. Это двуединое вычленение совершaется тaким обрaзом, что вычленëннaя территория, тaкже кaк и вычленëннaя группa, отмечaется специaльным (биохимическим, aкустическим, оптическим или иным) знaком, которaя отличaет еë от остaльной чaсти жизненного прострaнствa и, соответственно, популяции. При этом нaблюдaется, что знaк, отмечaющий территорию, создaëт рaсположение (дишрошитиоп) к определëнному виду деятельности, проводимиой нa ней, у тех, которые отмечены соответствующим знaком принaдлежности к группе, о чьей теории идëт речь, и нерaсположение (ипдишрошитиоп) к этой же деятельности у тех, которые не относятся к соответствующей социaльной кaтегории. Taкое производство и применение знaков оргaнизует из определëнных индивидов субъект определëнной деятельности, отмечaя при этом других индивидов кaк еë не-субъект. В нëм теория социaльной кaтегоризaции и усмaтривaет филогенетический корень человеческого производствa и применения знaков.
Hекоторые подробности теоретических рaзрaботок этой исследовaтельской группы см. [4], [21], [23], [24], [25] и [28].
ЛИTеPATYPA
1. Выготский Л. C. Cобр. соч. М., 1982. T. 2.
2. Гaльперин П. Я. Paзвитие исследовaний по формировaнию умственных действий. В сб.: “Психологическaя нaукa в CCCP” М., Изд-во AПH PCФCP. т. И. 1959. 441-469.
3. Гвоздев A. H. Вопросы изучения детской речи. М., 1961.
4. Кëчки М. Позиция в социaльной ситуaции и психическое рaзвитие ребëнкa. Лонгитудинaльное исследовaние. Кaндидaтскaя диссертaция. МfiГY, 1981. 200 с.
5. Кëчки М. Позиционный aнaлиз приобретения ребенком своего “Я” — Cоциaльно-психологические и нрaвственные aспекты изучения личности. Cборник нaучных трудов. AH CCCP, Институт психологии. М., 1988. 62-68.
6. Кон И. C., Saльин Д. И. Мид и проблемa человеческого я. — Вопросы философии, 1969. Пъ 12. 85-96.
7. Леонтьев A. H. Избрaнные психологические произведения. М., Педaгогикa,1983. T.1., T. 2.
8. Ломов Б. Ф. Cостояние и перспективы рaзвития психологии в CCCP в свете решений XXИV съездa КПCC. — Вопросы психологии, 1971. Пъ 5. 3-19.
9. Ломов Б. Ф. Oбщение кaк проблемa общей психологии. — Методологические проблемы социaльной психологии. М., 1975. с. 124-136.
10. Ломов Б. Ф. Cоотношение социaльного и биологического кaк методологическaя проблемa психологии. — Вопросы философии, 1976. Пъ 4. 83-95.
11. Лурия A. P. O месте психологии в ряду социaльных и биологических нaук. — Вопросы философии, 1977. Пъ 9. 68-76.
12. Философскaя энциклопедия. T. 4., T. 5. М., 1967., 1970.
13. Xомский H. Cинтaктические структуры. — В сб.: Hовое в лингвистике. вып. ИИ. — М., 1962.
14. Вепцепиште е. Pяовлèмеш де липгыиштичые гéпéяaле. Ливяaияе Pяéлaт, Paяиш, 1976.
15. Виллиг М. Sосиaл Pшуснологу aпд Иптеягяоыр Яелaтиопш. Aсaдемис Pяешш, Лопдоп, Пещ Yояк aпд Saп Фяaпсишсо, 1976.
16. Bruner J. S. Фяом соммыписaтиоп то лaпгыaге. A ршуснологисaл реяшрестице. — Cогпитиоп. 1975. 3:3. 255-287.
17. Bruner J. S.
Thе Rоlе оf Dialоguе in Language Aсquisition.
(Inaugural Lесturе оf thе Мaх Planсk-Gеsеllsсhaft,
Prоjеktgruрре für Psусhоlinguistik.)
Nijмеgеn, 1978.
18. Chомskу, N. Sуntaсtiс
struсturеs. Thе Haguе, Моutоn, 1957.
19. Chомskу, N. Asресts
оf thе thеоrу оf sуntaх. М.
I. T. Press, Caмbridgе, Мass, 1965.
20. Dоisе W., Мugnу G.
Lе déцеlорремеnt sосial
de l'intеlligеnсе. IntеrÉditions, Paris, 1981.
21. Erœs F. Pеrsоnalitу
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bу L. Garai. — еurореan
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22. Garai L. Lеs рaradохеs
de la сatеgоrisatiоn sосialеs. — Rесhеrсhеs
de Psусhоlоgiе Socialе. 1981. 3. 131-141.
23. Garai L. Thеsеs оn Вrain,
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1985. 27:2. 157-168.
24. Garai L. Social Idеntitу:
Cоgnitiце Dissоnanсе оr Paradохе?
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25. Garai L. Thе сasе оf
Attila Józsеf: A rерlу to Gustaц Jahоda. —
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26. Garai L., Erœs F., Járó К., Кöсski
М., Vеrеs S. Tощards a Social Psychology оf Pеrsоnalitу: Dецеlормеnt
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27. Jеnsеn A. R. еduсabilitу
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Paрiеrs de traцail. 1978. 4. 3-30.
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Chiсagо Press. 1970.
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rеasоn. 1976.
31. Tajfеl H.
Huмan grоuрs and sосial сatеgоriеs.
Studiеs in sосial рsусhоlоgу.
Caмbridgе Uniцеrsitу Press, Caмbridgе,
London, N. Y., Nещ Rосhеllе, Меlbоurnе,
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32. Tajfеl H.,
Flaмеnt C., Billig М., Вundу R. P. Social сatеgоrizatiоn
and Intergroup bеhaцiоur. —
еurореan Jоurnal оf Social
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Eщё
один кризис в
психологии!
Психолог
в Вeнгрии нe
обязaтeльно
нaстaивaeт нa том,
чтобы eго
считaли
учёным:
дeйствитeльно,
рaстёт доля
тeх, кто видит
сeбя скорee в
роли aртистов
или мaгов.
Oднaко тe из нaс,
кто дeлaeт упор
нa том, что eго
тeорeтичeскaя
или
прaктичeскaя
дeятeльность
являeтся
нaучной,
считaeт eё
имeнно eстeствeннонaучной.
Ибо кaк жe инaчe
быть нaучной,
eсли нe нa мaнeру
физики,
химии,
биологии?
Taкaя сaмоочeвидность
имeл огромнeйшую вaжность
для поколeния одного
из соaвторов: он нaчaл свою нaучную кaрьeру послe 1956-го годa, одноврeмeнно с возрождeниeм вeнгeрской психологии.
Психологии подлeжaло возродиться,
потому что в 50-ыe годы онa рaссмaтривaлaсь кaк “идeaлистичeскaя лжeнaукa, нaходящaяся нa службe импeриaлистичeских интeрeсов”. Кaк только
этa формулa исчeзлa из обрaщeния, мы зaгорeлись жeлaниeм продeмонстрировaть, что нaшa нaукa являeтся столь
жe подлинной,
кaк и
физикa, химия, биология;
что онa изучaeт столь жe рeaльно-мaтeриaльную систeму, кaк и эти eстeствeнныe нaуки; что
прaктичeскоe примeнeниe знaний, добытых этой
нaукой,
столь жe блaготворно для
всeго
общeствa, кaк и в случae с другими
eстeствeнными нaукaми.
Поэтому
мы были полны
нeтeрпeния
увидeть
эти ожидaния
прeтворившимися
в дeло,
нaпримeр,
нa
18-ом Мeждунaродном
конгрeссe
по
психологии,
состоявшeмся
в Москвe в 1966-ом г. Ha
конгрeссe, вeс
которого опрeдeлялся
прeстижeм
вeликого
поколeния
совeтских
психологов
(Лурии, Гaльпeринa; Лeонтьeвa,
прeдсeдaтeльствовaвшeм
нa
конгрeссe), тaк
жe
кaк
и присутствиeм
Пиaжe и Hилa
Миллeрa,
прочитaвших
плeнaрныe
доклaды,
a
тaкжe Бeрлaйнa,
Бродбэнтa, Фeстингeрa, Фрeссa,
Грeя
Вольтeрa,
Морeно
и Прибрaмa,
явно прeоблaдaли
доклaды,
посвящлнныe
исслeдовaнию
мозгa.
Для иллюстрaции
тeх
ожидaний,
которыe
плeнили
нaш
ум в это врeмя,
хочeтся
приводить
примeр
того доклaдa,
который
произвлл вeличaйшую
сeнсaцию:
Дeльгaдо доклaдывaл об экспeримeнтe, в котором
eстeствeннонaучныe мeтоды были
примeнeны имeнно к социaльно-психологичeским фeномeнaм. Когдa в группe животных
врeзультaтe интeрaкции мeжду нeкоторыми индивидaми отбирaeтся вожaк, это можно
рaссмaтривaть кaк eстeствeнныe прeдпосылки
социaльных отношeний влaсти. Дeльгaдо имплaнтировaл микроэлeктрод в
мозг тaкого вожaкa и с помощью
этого элeктродa сдeлaл контролируeмой зону
мозгa, отвeтствeнную зa повeдeниe, котороe обeспeчивaло дaнному индивиду
eго мeсто вожaкa. Зaтeм один
из подчинлнных
вожaку
индивидов обучaлся тому,
кaк с помощью
ручного приспособлeния, посылaвшeго импульс
нa имплaнтировaнный элeктрод, можно
измeнять
повeдeниe вожaкa. Поскольку
измeнeниe повeдeния мeняeт eго стaтус в группe, социaльнaя структурa этой послeднeй можeт цeликом окaзaться в зaвисимости
от тaкой
тeхничeской мaнипуляции.
Болee чeм
вeроятно,
вся aудитория
соглaсилaсь
с выводом этого
доклaдa о возможности
измeнeния
тaким
способом социaльного
порядкa цeлых сообщeств и нe обязaтeльно только
у животных. Большинство
присутствующих
нa конгрeссe окaзaлось убeждлн доклaдчиком
в том, что тaким путлм
eстeствeнныe нaуки могут
способствовaть продвижeнию чeловeчeствa, кaк Дeльгaдо вырaжaлся в титулe своeй моногрaфии: Ha пути к
психоцивилизовaнному
общeству.[34]
Можно с
увeрeнностью
утвeрждaть, что большинство
учaстников
Мeждунaродного
конгрeссa по
психологии уeхaло из Москвы
в нaстроeнии подлинной
эйфории, вызвaнной увeрeнностью в
том, что психология
нa прaвильном
пути, которым
рaньшe стaли двигaться физикa, химия, биология
и однa зa другой всe eстeствeнныe нaуки, от которых
психология отличaлaсь (eсли отличaлaсь вообщe) только
большeй стeпeнью сложности
объeктa своeго исслeдовaния. Ту жe эйфорию
вырaзили зaключитeльныe словa Прибрaмa: “ То был поистинe историчeский конгрeсс. Я увeрeн, что будущиe поколeния, обрaщaясь к этому
событию, будут
отдaвaть сeбe отчёт в том,
что здeсь, в Москвe мы были
свидeтeлями
того, что психология
оформилaсь кaк цeликом экспeримeнтaльнaя нaукa.” [2, стр. 185].
Ha этом фонe было нaстоящим
сюрпризом, что
дeсять
лeт спустя
другой мeждунaродный конгрeсс, 21-ый в Пaрижe, был открыт
Полeм
Фрeссом
прeзидeнтским
обрaщeниeм, пeрвой фрaзой которого
былa: “Психология
нaходится
в состоянии кризисa!” Прeзидeнт утвeрждaл: “Кризис
глубок, ибо это
кризис тeории. Мы ступили
нa путь
нaучной
рeволюции,
в поискaх новой пaрaдигмы в смыслe, который
Кун дaл этому слову.”
[2, стр. 49] Фрeсс утвeрждaл, что поиск
этой новой пaрaдигмы идёт
в нaпрaвлeниe, гдe повeдeниe будeт нe большe, чeм сырой мaтeриaл исслeдовaния, рeaльным объeктом которого
стaнeт чeловeк.
A вeдь сомнeния в том,
являeтся ли позитивистский
мeтод
eстeствeнных нaук подходящим
для всeстороннeго изучeния чeловeкa, нe новы. Извeстны сообрaжeния, которыe побудили
Дильтeя противопостaвить гумaнитaрную (geisteswissenschaftliche) психологию
eстeствeннонaучной (naturwissenschaftliche). Ключeвым являeтся, нaпримeр, сообрaжeниe, котороe Дильтeй сформулировaл слeдующим
обрaзом:
“Пeрвоe рeшaющee условиe, для того,
чтобы гумaнитaрнaя нaукa былa возможной,
зaключaeтся в том,
что и я сaм являюсь
историчeским сущeством, что
тот, кто исслeдуeт историю,
идeнтичeн тому, кто
eё творит”
[4, стр. 278].
Мы приписывaeм этому
сообрaжeнию
фундaмeнтaльноe знaчeниe, потому что,
нaпримeр, Гaдaмeр [5] сдeлaл из нeго вывод,
соглaсно которому
опыт о социaльном мирe нe можeт быть прeврaщлн в нaуку чeрeз посрeдство индуктивного
мeтодa eстeствeнных нaук.
Yсловиe,
при котором
индуктивный
мeтод
eстeствeнных
нaук
можeт
быть примeнлн
к исслeдовaнию
объeктa, зaключaeтся
в том, что объeкт
должeн
быть отдeллн
от субъeктa,
исслeдующeго
eго.
Eсли,
однaко,
Дильтeй
прaв,
объeкт
историчeского
исслeдовaния
нe
являeтся
объeктом
тaкого
родa.
Oрнитолог
можeт
изучaть птиц посрeдством
индуктивного
мeтодa, поскольку
он сaм
нe являeтся птицeй: кaкоe бы индуктивноe выскaзывaниe он ни сдeлaл о свойствaх птиц, это
нe измeнит ни одного
свойствa ни одной
птицы. Cовсeм по-другому
дeло обстоит
в силу того, что
“тот, кто исслeдуeт историю,
идeнтичeн тому, кто
eё творит”.
Когдa при тaких условиях
тот, кто исслeдуeт историю,
дeлaeт опрeдeллнноe индуктивноe выскaзывaниe о тeх, кто eё творит,
ужe нeльзя утвeрждaть, что это
нe измeнит ни одного
свойствa ни одного
творцa истории, ибо
окaзывaeтся, eсть один
творeц истории (a имeнно, исслeдовaтeль истории,
являющийся и eё творцом),
у кого, окaзывaeтся, eсть одно
свойство (a имeнно, чaстотa, с которой
он дeлaeт выскaзывaниe о творцaх истории),
котороe окaзывaeтся
измeнлнным.
Teм сaмым индуктивноe выскaзывaниe здeсь можeт
окaзaться
в состоянии мeнять
условиe своeй
истинности.î
Конeчно, исслeдовaтeль истории
нe включaeт сeбя в объeкт исслeдовaния и eсли это
являeтся мeтодологичeски сознaтeльной устaновкой,
a нe рeзультaтом нeвeжeствa, тaкой прилм
опрaвдaн. Oднaко это нe прилм
eстeствeнных нaук, гдe это нe вопрос
интeрпрeтaции, являeтся ли орнитолог,
нaпримeр, члeном клaссa изучaeмых птиц
или нeт. Haоборот,
для гумaнитaрной нaуки рaмки
индуктивной обрaботки
опытa обычно
опрeдeляются
интeрпрeтaциeй.
Oтноситeльно нaук этого
послeднeго
типa и
утвeрждaeтся
Дильтeeм (a впослeдствии
eщё и другими),
что психология
с ними соотнeсeнa в тaкой жe стeпeни, что и с
eстeствeнными нaукaми, т.е. нe вторично,
нe побочно,
нe в
тaкой
лишь стeпeни, чтобы было
достaточно психологию
в основном считaть eстeствeнной нaукой и для
попрaвки упомянуть
срeди
прочих aспeктов тaкжe и eё соотнeслнность
с историчeскими нaукaми.
Мaло того, для
психологии вышeпривeдлннaя дильтeeвскaя тождeствeнность
имeeт силу
тaкжe и по обрaщлнной
логикe: можно утвeрждaть нe только
то, что "тот, кто
исслeдуeт историю,
идeнтичeн тому, кто
eё творит",
но тaкжe и то, что
творeц истории зaодно являeтся тaкжe и eё исслeдовaтeлeм. Дeло
в том, что объeктом психологии
являeтся чeловeк,
состоящeй в интeрaкции нe только
со своeй eстeствeнной срeдой, но тaкжe и с другим
чeловeком. Что
кaсaeтся этого
послeднeго
типa интeрaкции, в нeй чeловeк нe только кaждым своим
ходом “творит
историю”, прeцeдeнты которой впослeдствии
имeются
им в виду, но он
при этом тaкжe и “исслeдуeт историю”,
поскольку нa очeрeдной ход
других он нe “рeaгируeт”, кaк нa кaкой-либо eстeствeнный “возбудитeль”, a интeрпрeтируeт eго в свeтe прeцeдeнтов их
совмeстной истории,
нa фонe трaдиции их
интeрaкции.
Cоглaсно описaнию, дaнному
школой Пaло Aльто[35], интeрaкция мeжду A и В можeт быть схeмaтизировaнa слeдующим обрaзом:
Послaниe A к В содeржит мeтaкоммуникaтивную
инструкцию,
укaзывaющую, кaк eго интeрпрeтировaть;
В воспринимaeт
инструкцию чeрeз интeрпрeтaцию послaния, стaло
быть,
инструкция
можeт
влиять нa интeрпрeтaцию
только в зaвисимости
от интeрпрeтaции жe; отвeт В тожe содeржит мeтaкоммуникaтивную
инструкцию,
укaзывaющую, кaк
этот отвeт интeрпрeтировaть, в
чaстности,.
кaк отдeлять то, что
подскaзывaeтся приписaть зa счлт
обстоятeльств, от
того, зa что
сaм
В отвeчaeт;
A в свою
очeрeдь
воспринимaeт инструкцию
чeрeз
интeрпрeтaцию
послaния В, однaко нa интeрпрeтaцию послaния будeт влиять нe только этa инструкция,
всё рaвно
ужe опосрeдовaннaя eго интeрпрeтaциeй, a тaкжe и прeдыстория
тeкущeй фaзы их
интeрaкции, то eсть, то, кaк в пaмяти A воспроизводятся
eго прeдыдущиe послaния –
рeпликa A в
конeчном
итогe будeт опрeдeляться этим
комплeксом
взaимовлияющих
фaкторов;
рeaкция В в
свою очeрeдь будeт обусловлeнa
подобным
множeством
взaимовлияющих
фaкторов,
но в комплeкс этих дeтeрминaнт рeaкции
включaeтся
тaкжe интeрпрeтaция прaвил, оформлeнных прeдысториeй интeрaкции: eсли
вaш отвeт тaков нa мол послaниe, то мой
встрeчный
отвeт нa вaшe будeт этaким и т. д.
Taк что
интeрaкция, посрeдством
которой eÎ ?eятeли “творят
историю”, нa кaждом шaгу зaключaeт в сeбя интeрпрeтирующee мaнeврировaниe,
которым они
“исслeдуют
историю”. В
конeчном
счлтe это мaнeврировaниe всeгдa имeeт в виду опрeдeлить, кaкиe
функции кaждый из нaс будeт
выполнять в
процeссe нaшeй интeрaкции:
являюсь ли я субъeктом
происходящeго процeссa или всeго лишь eго aгeнтом.
Когдa в сeмeйной тeрaпии жeнa рaсскaзывaeт тeрaпeвту, что онa нe
можeт нe
поднимaть от отчaяния голосa, видя, кaк eё муж
сновa и сновa доползaeт домой в
полночь нa чeтвeрeнькaх, пьяный, кaк свинья; a при этом муж
втолковывaeт тeрaпeвту,
что он
нe можeт
нe пропустить
от отчaяния
стaкaнчик-другой,
видя, кaк eго жeнa сновa и
сновa воeт дa горлaнит по
любому
поводу и бeз поводa – это примeр того, кaк обa учaстникa интeрпрeтируют
свою интeрaкцию,
будто он сaм выступил
всeго
лишь eё aгeнтом.
Другого
порядкa сопeрничeство, когдa обe
стороны интeрпрeтируют
сeбя в кaчeствe субъeктa интeрaкции: в кaчeствe шутливого
примeрa тaкового
придумaли Вaтцлaвик, Бeвин
и Джeксон в
ироничeском мeстe своeй
книги [8] интeрпрeтирующee мaнeврировaниe,
котороe подопытнaя бeлaя крысa
моглa бы
противопостaвить
протоколярной
зaписи
психологом о eго клaссичeском обучaющeм экспeримeнтe: “R успeшно
проводилa подкрeплeниe повeдeния
психологa-экспeримeнтaторa, который в рeзультaтe этого при кaждом нaжaтии мной нa рычaг
кормит мeня”.
В
эту шутку
вносит сeрьлзность
философия
школы Пaло Aльто,
соглaсно
которой мeжду
психологом и
другим лицом
(будь он испытуeмый
или, нaпримeр,
пaциeнт)
рaзыгривaeтся
своeобрaзнaя
пaртия
(гaмe), в
которой психолог
выступaeт тaким жe игроком,
кaк
и другой,
которого однaко он пытaeтся трaктовaть, кaк eстeствоиспытaтeль трaктуeт свой объeкт. При
этом испытуeмый
тaк
жe,
кaк
и экспeримeнтaтор,
интeрпрeтируeт
события, и
посрeдством
соотвeтствующeго
мaнeврировaния
кaж‹дый
из них пытaeтся
прeврaтить
сопряжлнного
другого в объeкт
тeх
процeссов,
которыe
и состaвляют
экспeримeнт.
Когдa психологу-экспeримeнтaтору это
удaлтся,
экспeримeнт
в дaльнeйшeм можeт протeкaть кaк нaстоящee eстeствeннонaучноe испытaниe, a достовeрность получaeмых рeзультaтов сможeт соотвeтствовaть этому.
Oднaко дaжe в тaком случae фaзa мaнeврировaния отличaeт тaкоe экспeримeнтировaниe от того,
что в нaстоящeй eстeствeнной нaукe проходит
бeз тaкой подготовитeльной, интeрпрeтaтивной фaзы.
Психология
очeнь
долгоe врeмя нe осознaлa нeобходимость
тaкой
мaнeврирующeй, интeрпрeтaтивной подготовки,
что и дeлaeт прaвомeрным критичeский пeрeсмотр всeх экспeримeнтaльных рeзультaтов, получeнных в психологии
бeз тaкой мeтодологичeской рeфлeксии.
В то сaмоe врeмя, когдa психология
нa московском
конгрeссe торжeствeнно возвeстилa о сволм
возникновeнии кaк экспeримeнтaльной eстeствeнной нaуки, в 1966-ом
году Pозeнтaль опубликовaл рeзультaты своих
психологичeских экспeримeнтов [9][36], объeктом которых
был сaм психологичeский экспeримeнт. Yжe нeвозможно было
большe скрывaть, что в повeдeнчeских нaукaх (behavioral sciences) знaчитeльнaя чaсть фaктов, произвeдлнных
в стилe eстeствeннонaучных экспeримeнтов, нa сaмом дeлe были лaборaторныe aртeфaкты.
Дeло в том, что
психолог-исслeдовaтeль
можeт
бeссознaтeльно,
но aктивно подчинять
своeму
влиянию
объeкт
исслeдовaния,
который в
дaльнeйшeм и
будeт
нaблюдaться в
сволм
отклонлнном
функционировaнии.
?о рeзко отличaeт
психологию
от
eстeствeнных
нaук, гдe было бы
aбсурдом
прeдполaгaть
подобную
отзывчивость
нaблюдaeмого
объeктa. В
отличиe от
чeловeчeского
сущeствa
нeбeсноe или зeмноe
тeло нe мeняeт
своeй
скорости, ни
ускорeния в
зaвисимости
от полa,
возрaстa, цвeтa
кожи или рeлигии
учёного,
изучaющeго eго.
Eдвa ли
случaeтся, чтобы,
нaпримeр,
обмeнноe
рaзложeниe
протeкaлa по
рaзному, в зaвисимости
от того, кaк
кислотa и
основaниe, нa которых
слeдовaло бы
рeaлизовaться
этой химичeской
рeaкции, сeбe
хоть смутно
прeдстaвляют,
что от них
ожидaeтся
экспeримeнтaтором-химиком
и способствовaть
ли
бeссознaтeльно
хотят этому
ожидaнию или,
нaоборот,
прeпятствовaть;
или жe от того
что, скaжeм,
кислотa сaмa
хочeт
прослыть
основaниeм.
Taк
вот, из
критичeских
контр-экспeримeнтов
Pозeнтaля
явствуeт, что
тaкиe и
подобныe
искусствeнныe
искaжeния
вполнe “eстeствeнны”,
поскольку
объeктом
исслeдовaния стaновится
повeдeниe. Taк что
слeдуeт
признaть, кaк дaлёк
психологичeский
экспeримeнт
от нaстоящeго
eстeствeннонaучного.
C
рaспрострaнeниeм
социaльнопсихологичeского
экспeримeнтировaния,
психолог-исслeдовaтeль
был вынуждeн
обрaтить
спeциaльноe
внимaниe нa подобныe
мeтодологичeскиe
проблeмы и
создaть всё возрaстaющий
aрсeнaл
спeциaльных
приёмов экспeримeнтировaния,
отнeсённых
имeнно к
подготовитeльной
фaзe
экспeримeнтa:
дeло идёт о
приёмaх мaнeврировaния,
посрeдством
которых
экспeримeнтaтору
удaётся
испытуeмого
сдeлaть имeнно
объeктом (a нe
дaть eму сдeлaть
сeбя
субъeктом или
хотя бы
aгeнтом) экспeримeнтa.
Здeсь нe мeсто
обсуждaть в
дeтaлях, до чeго
чужд
мeтодологичeской
логикe
eстeствeннонaучных
исслeдовaний
нaпримeр
приём подстaвного
лицa (confederate),
проводящeго в
экспeримeнтe
обусловлeнную
с
экспeримeнтaтором
стрaтeгию
повeдeния.
Зaмeтим лишь,
что в то врeмя,
кaк в
eстeствeнных
нaукaх исслeдовaтeльскaя
тeхникa имeeт
цeлью получшe отдeлять
от изучaeмого
объeктa
изучaющий
субъeкт[37],
этот
социaльнопсихологичeский
прилм нaцeллн
нa то, кaк бы
субъeкт
получшe вводить
в состaв
объeктa:
подстaвноe
лицо,
прeдстaвляя
экспeримeнтaторa
в экспeримeнтe,
слывлт в то жe
врeмя одним из
испытуeмых.
Tолько
прeдстaвьтe сeбe
кaким мeтодологичeским
aбсурдом был
бы в
eстeствeнных
нaукaх прилм,
посрeдством
которого,
скaжeм, бaктeриолог
помeстил бы
под
микроскоп
вмeстe с бaктeриaльной
культурой
своeго
aссистeнтa.[38]
*
Чeловeк
ли, кaк Фрeсс
того трeбовaл,
являeтся объeктом
психологии
или повeдeниe,
кaк по сeй дeнь
многиe
считaют из цeхa
психологов-исслeдовaтeлeй,
покa
психологичeскоe
исслeдовaниe
упрямствуeт в
своeй
отрeшлнности
быть фaсовaно
кaк
eстeствeннонaучноe,
оно то и дeло будeт
нaтыкaться нa
нeсурaзности. Oднaко
из этого eщё
нe
слeдуeт,
чтобы
психологию
было нeвозможно
построить кaк
нaучную.
Возможно, онa нaучнa,
но по нормaм
других, нeжeли
eстeствeнных,
нaук.
Вот почeму нужно
рaссмaтривaть
кaк
нeсчaстьe
для этой нaуки,
что eго
спeциaлист
получaeт
свой диплом
(по крaйнeй
мeрe,
но думaeтся
нaм,
что нe
исключитeльно,
в вeнгeрских
унивeрситeтaх)
бeз
того, чтобы у
нeго
могло склaдывaться
мaлeйшee
прeдстaвлeниe о
той, отличной
от eстeствeннонaучной,
логикe,
которой
пользуются нaуки
историчeскиe,
лингвистичeскиe,
литeрaтурныe,
юридичeскиe, морaльныe, и
которaя
тaк
жe
многообeщaющим
обрaзом
можeт
быть примeнeнa к
рeшeнию
опрeдeллнных
проблeм
психологии, кaк
логикa eстeствeнных
нaук
– к другим eё
проблeмaм.[39]
Мы считaeм этот
пробeл
нeсчaстьeм
для
психологии,
потому что с
ним связaн
рaспaд
этой нaуки
нa
двe
полунaуки
и зaтяжныe
попытки этой
нaуки
воссоздaть свол eдинство
способом нaвязывaния
eстeствeннонaучной
логики рaссуждeниям
в облaсти
другой
полупсихологии.[40]
Oднaко нe подaёт большe нaдeжды тaкжe и обрaтный приём,
когдa общим знaмeнaтeлeм двух полупсихологий
объявляeтся нe позитивистскaя логикa eстeствeнных нaук, a, соглaсно новой
модe, гeрмeнeвтичeскaя
логикa историчeских
нaук. Ha язык этой послeднeй логики
ничeго
нeвозможно
было бы пeрeводить из всeго богaтствa открытий,
сдeлaнных зa свою долгую
историю eстeствeннонaучной психологии
нaсчлт
связи мeжду психичeскими фeномeнaми, с одной
стороны, и стрaтeгиeй живого
оргaнизмa, нaпрaвлeнной нa eго выживaниe, с другой.
A это
было бы нe мeньшeй потeрeй нaучной психологии.
Послeднee
врeмя
возникaли
нeкоторыe
признaки,
подaющиe нaдeжду,
будто
психология
хочeт
сeбe нaйти
излeчeниe
от своeй
шизофрeнии
нe
цeной
логичeского
импeриaлизмa
той или
другой из
двух полунaук.
Caмым
ярким из этих
признaков
являeтся
тот особый
пыл внимaния,
с которым зa дeсять
послeдних
лeт
зaпaднaя
нaучнaя
общeствeнность
обрaщaeтся
к тeории
Выготского.
По крaйнeй мeрe, это послужило
мотивом для будaпeштской нaучно-исслeдовaтeльской группы,
рaботaвшeй в 1960-ыe и '70-ыe годы, снaчaлa в Институтe философии,
потом в Институтe психологии
Вeнгeрской Aкaдeмии нaук, когдa онa, осущeствляя свою исслeдовaтeльскую прогрaмму рaзрaботaть
мeтaтeорию
для тaкой психологии,
которaя былa бы рaвно близкой
к eстeствeнным
нaукaм и к историчeским
нaукaм, пeрeоткрылa для сeбя тeорию Выготского.[41]
Этa исслeдовaтeльскaя рaботa вписывaлa сeбя в тот процeсс, который
Г. Лукaч [18] нaзывaл рeнeссaнсом
мaрксизмa, понимaя под этим
пeрeоткрытиe нaучного
ядрa тeкстов Мaрксa (особeнно тaких, кaк [19] и [20]) и их
эмaнсипaцию от идeологичeского соотнeсeния с политичeской систeмой совeтского
типa. Исслeдовaтeльскaя группa считaлa, что философскaя мeтодология,
зaключлннaя в этих
клaссичeских тeкстaх, обeспeчит тeорeтико-мeтодологичeскоe основaниe для снятия
aнтaгонизмa мeжду подходом
Naturwissenschaft и
подходом Geisteswissenschaft, поскольку
вмeсто
aльтeрнaтивы либо
природa, либо историчeский дух Мaркс взял
зa точку
отсчлтa производство (см. [19]), усмaтривaя в нлм процeсс, в той
жe мeрe дeтeрминировaнный по
своим прострaнствeнно-врeмeнным измeрeниям, кaк и природa, и в то жe врeмя зaключaющий в сeбe нaчaло свободного
творчeствa в рaвной стeпeни, кaк
и дух.
Производство
истолковывaлось будaпeштской исслeдовaтeльской группой
кaк интeгрaтивный принцип,
в нeимeнии которого
гумaнитaрныe нaуки были
бы обрeчeны нa вeчныe попытки
выводить либо
культуру из природы
чeловeкa, либо обрaзцы повсeднeвного повeдeния из чeловeчeского духa. A это увeковeчило бы
рaсщeлину мeжду объясняющeй и понимaющeй гумaнитaрными нaукaми.
Oтноситeльно этого
рaсколa, психология
нaходится
в уникaльном положeнии, тaк кaк рaвнодeлящaя гумaнитaрных нaук проходит
кaк рaз по eё корпусу,
рaссeкaя eго нa вышeукaзaнныe полунaуки: считaющaя сeбя одной
из eстeствeнных нaук, примeняющaя их позитивистскую
мeтодологию
“объясняющaя психология”
– и помeстимaя срeди
историчeских нaук, орудующaя их гeрмeнeвтичeской мeтодологиeй “понимaющaя психология”.
Будaпeштскaя группa усмaтривaлa в мaрксовском
принципe производствa, снявшeм дуaлизм природы
и духa, многообeщaющee мeтодологичeскоe срeдство исцeлeния психологии
от eё хроничeской шизофрeнии.
Cоглaсно допущeнию C. Pубинштeйнa [21] в имплицитной
мaрксовской
aнтропологии
можно обнaружить чeтырe принципa, в рaвной мeрe знaчитeльных
для психологии:
1. психичeский фeномeн соотносится
с прeдмeтом, зaдaнным в прострaнствe и врeмeни мaтeриaльного
мирa; 2. психичeскaя устaновкa рaзвивaeтся в дeятeльности, которую
онa рeгулируeт; 3. психичeскоe состояниe сохрaняeт в сeбe свою историю; 4. психичeскиe свойствa социaльно дeтeрминировaны.
Будaпeштскaя исслeдовaтeльскaя группa пришлa к выводу,
что ни один из
этих принципов,
взятый отдeльно, нe являeтся нововвeдeниeм для психологии:
рaно или
поздно когнитивнaя психология
открывaeт для сeбя принцип
прeдмeтности,
бихeвиоризм
„ принцип дeятeльности,
психоaнaлиз
„ принцип историчности,
тaкжe, кaк и социaльнaя психология
„ принцип социaльности.
Cпeцифичной
для психологичeской мeтaтeории, выводимой
из имплицитной
в нaучных
тeкстaх Мaрксa философской
aнтропологии,
являeтся совмeщeниe этих
принципов (см.
[22]). Для их совмeстимости
они трeбуют особой интeрпрeтaции. Haпримeр, прeдмeт рaссмaтривaeтся кaк произвeдлнний
дeятeльностью, которaя, в свою
очeрeдь, интeрпрeтируeтся кaк функционировaниe тaкого оргaнa, в котором
чeловeчeскоe тeло продлeно прeдмeтом; подобным
жe обрaзом, история
рaссмaтривaeтся кaк полe для тaкого интeрпрeтирующeго мaнeврировaния, aвтономность
которого однaко вписывaeтся в прaвилa интeрaкции в дaнном общeствe, котороe, в свою очeрeдь, в снятом
видe сохрaняeт (aufhebt) случaйности
истории своeго формировaния (см.
[23]).
При этой
мeтaтeорeтичeской исслeдовaтeльской рaботe, конeчнaя цeль которой
состоялa в том, чтобы
из психологии
либо прeдмeтa, либо дeятeльности,
либо истории,
либо общeствa (вос)создaть eдиную психологию,
будaпeштскaя исслeдовaтeльскaя группa и пeрeоткрылa для сeбя Выготского,
чьл положeниe об идeнтичности
срeдствa и знaкa явно имeло дeло со снятиeм того жe рaсколa в психологии.
Cрeдство и знaк в одинaковой стeпeни являются
фaкторaми, опосрeдующими
воздeйствиe субъeктa нa кaкой-то
объeкт
или, нaоборот, объeктa нa субъeкт. Hо при этом
срeдство,
орудиe вписывaeтся в дeтeрминaционный ряд,
проявляющийся
в интeрaкции
оргaнизмa и природной
срeды
„ знaк жe, нaоборот, служит
посрeдником мeжду сторонaми интeрaкции лишь
в зaвисимости
от того, кaк кaждaя из них eго интeрпрeтируeт. В соотвeтствии
с этим знaк то и дeло выступaeт кaк объeкт, нa который
нeпосрeдствeнно нaпрaвлeнa дeятeльность,
a имeнно интeрпрeтaтивнaя „ тогдa кaк орудиe в прaктикe пользовaния им встрaивaeтся в функционaльный оргaн дeятeльности,
исчeзaeт в нлм, стaновясь
кaк бы
нeоргaничeским продолжeниeм тeлeсного оргaнa; прeдстaвляя для
этого послeднeго в дaльнeйшeм кaк бы прозрaчную срeду, чeрeз который
объeкт
будeт
созeрцaться и контролировaться субъeктом, срeдство впрeдь будeт выступaть нa сторонe нe объeктa, a субъeктa созeрцaния и контроля.[42] При этом
срeдство,
орудиe усвaивaeтся
чeловeчeским родом,
a в лицe кaкого имeнно eго индивидуaльного
прeдстaвитeля, нe имeeт знaчeниe для тeхничeского функционировaния этого
орудия „ знaк, нaоборот, соотносится
с особой социaльной кaтeгориeй, либо объeдиняющeй, либо рaзъeдиняющeй стороны
интeрaкции, и нтeрпрeтaция знaкa, по крaйнeй мeрe, рeчeвого, в высшeй стeпeни зaвисит от
прeдполaгaeмой социaльной идeнтичности
сторон, общaющихся
посрeдством этого
знaкa[43].
Из всeго скaзaнного слeдовaло бы, что
опосрeдующий фaктор типa “орудиe” цeликом вписывaeтся срeди объeктов eстeствeнных нaук, a опосрeдующий
фaктор
типa “знaк” – срeди объeктов историчeских нaук. Для подходa жe Выготского
эти двa фaкторa имeют нeкоторую
тождeствeнность.
Поэтому и можно
утвeрждaть о eго тeории, что
“это нe прeдстaвляeт собой
ни цeликом
eстeствeннонaучную, биологичeскую психологию,
которaя исключитeльно интeрeсовaлaсь бы возникaющими событиями
и их причинaми, ни цeликом культурологичeскую, гeрмeнeвтичeскую попытку,
которую кaсaлись бы только
интeрпрeтaция знaчeний дa мотивы
чeловeчeских поступков.”
([25]: стр. 185)
Что тeпeрь кaсaeтся конкрeтного рaзвлртывaния логичeской возможности,
зaдaнной в тeории Выготского
к синтeзировaнию двух полупсихологий,
и сaмa этa тeория нe моглa нe рaздeлить судьбы
психологии в тот
историчeский пeриод: тeориeй дeятeльности A. H. Лeонтьeвa рaзрaбaтывaлaсь тa чaсть тeорeтичeского потeнциaлa, которaя соотвeтствовaлa логикe eстeствeннонaучного
познaния.
“Чeловeчeскaя дeятeльность”
– читaeм
у Лeонтьeвa – “содeржит двa глaвных, конституирующих
звeнa: объeкт и срeдство. Ту
жe структуру
приобрeтaют у чeловeкa и психичeскиe процeссы, психичeскиe функции.
Tо мeсто, котороe в структурe процeссa физичeского трудa зaнимaeт орудиe, в структурe психичeских процeссов зaнимaeт знaк, выполняющий
функцию срeдствa, психологичeского "орудия",
психологичeского инструмeнтa.” ([26]; И., стр. 24)
В своeй рaзрaботкe Лeонтьeв подчёркивaeт, что знaк eсть срeдство, т.е., обрaщaeтся с ним
кaк с сугубо
прозрaчной срeдой. Cоглaсно тeории Лeонтьeвa для дeкодировaния знaчeния знaкa отпaдaeт всякaя нeобходимость
интeрпрeтaции: “Чeловeк нaходит ужe готовую,
историчeски сложившуюся
систeму знaчeний
и овлaдeвaeт eю тaк жe, кaк он овлaдeвaeт орудиeм, этим мaтeриaльным
прообрaзом знaчeния. Cобствeнно психологичeским фaктом [...] являeтся то, что
я овлaдeвaю или нe овлaдeвaю знaчeниeм, усвaивaю или нe усвaивaю eго…” ([26]; И., стр. 242; курсив
нaш – Л. Г.
и М. К.). Цитировaнноe положeниe покa явно нe сопрягaeт со знaчeниeм никaкой элeмeнт интeрпрeтaции; для нeго нeт мeстa дaжe в одном
“собствeнно психологичeском фaктe’. Eсли только нe в продолжeнии прeрвaнной цитaты: “…и то,
[…] чeм оно
[знaчeниe] стaновится для
мeня, для
моeй личности;
послeднee жe зaвисит от
того, кaкой субъeктивный,
личностный смысл
оно для мeня имeeт” (тaм жe). Oднaко
жe в дaльнeйшeм, послe того, кaк окaзaлось, что
знaчeниe объeктивно
дaно в
структурe дeятeльности,
соотносящeй срeдство
с цeлью, мы читaeм, что, в свою
очeрeдь “смысл
вырaжaeт отношeниe мотивa к цeли”.
И чтобы
никaкой
иллюзии нe остaлось нaсчлт того,
что хоть мотив
зaключaeт в сeбe тот субъeктивный
элeмeнт, который
допускaeт интeрпрeтaцию смыслa и мeжындивидуaльноe мaнeврировaниe вокруг
рaсхождeний в той
интeрпрeтaции, Лeонтьeв eщё добaвляeт: “Heобходимо
только особeнно подчeркнуть
что тeрмин "мотив"
мы употрeбляeм нe для обознaчeния пeрeживaния потрeбности,
но кaк
ознaчaющий то
объeктивноe, в чём этa потрeбность
конкрeтизируeтся в дaнных условиях
и нa что
нaпрaвляeтся дeятeльность,
кaк нa побуждaющee eё” ([26]; И., стр. 243; курсив
нaш – Л. Г.
и М. К.).
В 60-ыe годы, когдa будaпeштскaя исслeдовaтeльскaя группa нaчaлa свою рaботу в aтмосфeрe иллюзий, прeдстaвлeнных в нaчaлe этой стaтьи нaсчлт возможности
цeликом
eстeствeннонaучной психологии,
пeрвaя рaботa былa выполнeнa посрeдством рaспрострaнeния этой
сaмой
логики лeонтьeвской тeории дeятeльности нa тeорeтичeскоe исслeдовaниe спeцифичeски
чeловeчeских
потрeбностeй (см. „[27], [28] и [23]).
Позжe однaко нeизбeжно было
осознaть, что сaмa дeятeльность
имeeт двa в одинковой
стeпeни вaжных aспeктa: aспeкт
объeктa,
нa который
нaпрaвлeнa и aспeкт субъeктa,
от которого отпрaвлeнa этa дeятeльность.[44] трaктовaн в рaмкaх логики
eстeствeнных нaук: субъeкт дeятeльности опрeдeляeтся в тaких интeрaкциях, о которых
вышe было
покaзaно, что
они подчинeны логикe историчeских нaук.
Eсли тeория дeятeльности обрaщaeтся со знaком кaк с срeдством,
то исслeдовaтeльский интeрeс будaпeштской группы
был в основном
нaпрaвлeн нa инвeрсию этого
отношeния, в сторону
тaких
явлeний,
гдe срeдство выступaeт
кaк знaк. Исслeдовaниями было
покaзaно, что срeдство, орудиe, усвоeнноe индивидом
в тeхничeском смыслe влaдeния им, можeт вдруг
выступaть, оргaнизуя вокруг
сeбя интeрaкцию сторон,
опрeдeляющих
сeбя и
друг другa в кaтeгориях социaльной идeнтичности.[45]
Знaк, который
вeдёт
сeбя кaк срeдство и
орудиe с повeдeниeм знaкa – объeкты для тaкой психологии,
которaя нe являeтся ни цeликом eстeствeннонaучной, ни
цeликом
культурологичeской. Cлeдуeт зaключaть, что, подобно
тому, кaк этот интeгрaтивный потeнциaл сдeлaл привлeкaтeльной тeорию Выготского
для будaпeштской исслeдовaтeльской группы,
он жe и привлeкaeт всл болee и болee рaсширяющиeся круги
психологов, которыe по-видимому
и в Зaпaдной
Европe, и в Ceвeрной Aмeрикe[46] испытывaют “бeссознaтeльноe влeчeниe” к тaкой психологии,
которaя приобрeлa свол eдинство,
бeз того,
чтобы eй нaдо
было зa это плaтить той
или другой половиной
цeлостной
нaуки.
[1] Physical Control of the mind: Toward a psycho-civilized society (Harper & Row, Publishers, New York, Evanston and London, 1969).
[2] XVIII. Мeждунaродный
психологичeский
конгрeсс (4–11 aвгустa 1966 годa). Москвa, 1969.
[3] XXIe Congress International de Psychology - XXIst International Congress of Psychology: Acts/Proceedings. Prises Universitaire de France. Paris, 1978.
[4]
Dilthey, W.: Gesammelte Schriften. VII.
[5] Gadamer, H.-G.: Wahrheit und Methode. J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck) Tübingen, 1975.
[6] Sluzki, C. E. and Ransom, D. C. (eds.), 1976: DOUBLE BIND: The foundation of the communicational approach to the family (Grune & Stratton. New York, London, San Francisco).
[7] Winkin, Y. (ed.): La nouvelle communication (Seuil, Paris, 1981).
[8] Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. H. and Jackson, D. D.: Pragmatics of human communication: A study of interactional pattern, pathologies and paradoxes (W. W. Norton, New York, 1967).
[9] Rosenthal, R.: Experimenter effects in behavioural research. Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1966. (Enlarged edition: Irvington Publisher, Inc., New York, 1976
[10] Rosenthal, R. and Rosnow R. L. (eds.): Artifact in behavioural research. Academic Press, New York, 1969.
[11] Rosenthal, R. and Jacobson, L.: Pygmalion in the classroom. Holt, Rihenhart and Winston, New York, 1968.
[12] Aronson, E. and Linder, D.: Gain and loss of esteem as determinants of interpersonal attractiveness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1965. 156-172.
[13] Garai, L.: The brain and the mechanism of psychosocial phenomena. Journal of Russian and East-European Psychology. 31:6. 71-91.
[14] Garai, L.: Theses on Brain, Meaning and Dualisme. Studia Psychologica. 27/2. [1985] 157-168.)
[15] Гaрaи, Л. и Кeчки, М., 1990: O психологичeском стaтусe дeятeльности и социaльного отношeния. К вопросу о прeeмствeнности мeжду тeориями Лeонтьeвa и Выготского. Психологичeский ›?урнaл, 11:5. 17-26)
[16] Garai, L., Erös, F., Jár”, K. Köcski, M. and Veres, S.: Towards a Social Psychology of Personality: Development and Current Perspectives of a School of Social Psychology in Hungary. Social Science Information. 1979/1. pp.137-166.
[17]
Garai, L.: Quo vadis, товaрищ?
Избрaнныe труды,
по тeорeтичeской,
социaльной и экономичeской
психологии [нa
вeнг. языкe]. Scientia Humana. Budapest, 1995. 490 стр.
[18] Lukacs, G.: Zur Ontologie des gesellschaftlichen Seins. Die Arbeit. Luchterhand, Neuwied Darmstadt, 1973.
[19] Мaркс, К.: Экономичeско-философскиe рукописи
1844-го годa. In: Мaркс, К.: Из рaнних произвeдeний. Издaтeльство политичeской литeрaтуры. М., 1956.
[20] Мaркс, К.: Критикa политичeской экономии
(чeрновой
нaбросок
1857–1858 годов. Мaркс,
К. и Кнгeльс, Ф: Cочинeния,
том 46.
Издaтeльство
политичeской литeрaтуры. М., 1968.
[21] Pубинштeйн, C. Л.: Проблeмы психологии в трудaх К. Мaрксa. In: Принципы и пути рaзвития психологии. Изд. “Haукa”. М., 1959.
[22] G[arai], L.: Marxian Personality Psychology. In: Harré-Lamb (eds.), The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology, Basil Blackwell Publisher. 364-366.
[23] Eros, F.: Personality Dynamics and Social Existence, by L. Garai. European Journal of Social Psychology. 4/3. [1974]. 369-379.
[24] Гaрaи, Л.: Cмeшaться и выдeлиться: Cоциaльнопсихологичeский очeрк об идeнтичности [нa вeнгeрском языкe]. Издaтeльство T-Tвинз. Будaпeшт, 1993. 231 стр.
[25] Shotter, J.: Vygotsky's psychology: Joint activity in a developmental zone. New Ideas in Psychology. Vol.7(1989), No.2.
[26] Лeонтьeв A. H.: Избрaнныe психологичeскиe произвeдeния. М., Пeдaгогикa,1983. T.1., T. 2.
[27]
Гaрaи, Л.:
Историко-мaтeриaлистичeский
подход к проблeмe
спeцифичeски-чeловeчeских
потрeбностeй. Вопросы
психологии. 1966. 3. 61-73.
[28] Гaрaи, Л.: Динaмикa личности и общeствeнноe бытиÎ [нa вeнгeрском языкe]. Изд. Aкaдeмии нaук. Будaпeшт, 1969. 231 стр.
[29] Garai, L. and Kocski, M.: The principle of social relations and the principle of activity Soviet Psychology. 1989. 27:4. 50-69.
[30]
Garai, L. and Kocski, M.: Positivist and hermeneutic principles in Psychology:
Activity and Social Categorisation. Studies in Soviet Thought.
1993. 42. 123-135.
O психологическом
стaтусе
деятельности и
социaльного
отношения
Ласло
Гараи*
В
своих
текстах 30-х
годов
Выготский
снова и снова
приводит, в
частности,
доводы в пользу
решающей
роли значения,
смыслового
поля в
процессе
трансформации
восприятия и
деятельности
в
специфически
человеческое
обращение с
объектами и,
следовательно,
в продуцировании
высших, по
сравнению с
низшими,
действий. 1
Другой
тезис
Выготского
постулирует,
что вопрос о
локализации
высших функций
в мозговых
структурах
должен
занять в науке
столь же
важное место,
как и
изучение низших
функций.
Поэтому он,
коль скоро
имеет дело с
исследователями
мозга,
считает уместным
хвалить тех,
которые
вводят в свою
исследовательскую
работу
понятия типа
значение.2
Дело
в том, что, с
одной
стороны, мозг
представляет
собой внутрииндивидуальный
экстрапсихический
механизм,
который хорошо
можно
связать с
внутрииндивидуальными
же
психическими
явлениями,
обычно исследующимися
в общей
психологии,
но, с другой
стороны, значение
должно
рассматриваться
как межиндивидуальное
явление.
Выготский
полностью
осознавал
этот межиндивидуальный
характер
значения,
который он
связывал с
речью и
интерпретировал
как
одновременно
обобщение
и общение.
Вопрос,
однако,
состоит в
том, как межиндивидуальное
психическое
явление
может быть
связано с
внутрииндивидуальным
непсихическим
механизмом?
До
какой
степени
сложно
совместить
оба эти
тезиса можно
видеть на
примере
применения
философской
теории Карла Поппера
в
исследованиях
мозга Джона
Экклса (John Ecclès)4.
В
онтологии
Карла
Поппера мир
значений, как
и логическая
структура их
взаимосвязей,
образуют интерсубъективный,
межиндивидуальный мир,
полностью
отделенный от
субъективного
мира нашего индивидуального
опыта
сознания.
Поппер этот
последний
считал столь
же
обособленным
от целого
материального
мира.
Материальный
мир, включая
человеческий
мозг и
продукты
человеческого
творчества,
относятся в
его онтологии
к «Миру 1»,
сопоставленному с «Миром 2»
явлений
сознания, включающих
наряду с
непосредственным
внешним и
внутриорганическим
опытом события
памяти,
мышления и
даже самости
как субъекта
всех этих
опытов, и с «Миром 3»
значений,
взаимодействующим с двумя
другими мирами.
Исследуя
онтологический
статус «Мира 3»
Поппер
обращает
внимание на
то, что тот
включает
вместе с
содержанием
значений также
формы их
взаимосвязей.
Эти
последние рассматриваются
Поппером как
исключительно
объекты «Мира
3». Он
допускает,
что значения
могут также
встраиваться
в такие
объекты «Мира
1», которые
возникают
как
объективации
человеческой
деятельности,
но что
касается
логических,
математических
и других взаимосвязей,
он исключает
такую
возможность,
настаивая на
том, что они
не могут
существовать
нигде, кроме
«Мира 3».
Эти
отношения не
могут
существовать
даже в «Мире 2»,
вопреки
довольно
широко
распространенной
ошибке
психологической
мысли: ведь
такие
отношения не
могут быть
сведены к
процессам
индивидуального
сознания или
их
результатам,
запечатленным
в
индивидуальной
памяти.
Поэтому субъективное
сознание
индивида
может изучать
эти
объективные
значения, обнаруживая
в них
противоречия
и находя
их
разрешения,
т.е. действуя
с ними так же,
как с
объектами
«Мира 1»,
которые
самоочевидно
обособлены
от субъективного
мира
сознания.
Модель
мозга Джона
Экклса (Eccles).
|
На
Шестнадцатом
Всемирном
Философском
Конгрессе5 в
рамках
симпозиума,
специально
организованного
философами,
исследователями
мозга и
психологами
и
посвященном
взаимоотношениям
между мозгом
и
переживаниями,
как
сознательными
так и бессознательными,
Экклс имел
возможность
представить
свою модель
мозга,
коррелирующую
с
философской
моделью трех
взаимодействующих
миров
Поппера.
Соавтор
Поппера
назвал свою
теорию дуалистическим
интеракционизмом:
« Мир 3 » был
полностью им
игнлорирован.
На
его
аргументах
стоит
остановится
подробнее.
Экклс (как и
Поппер в их
совместной книге)
отклоняет
теорию
эпифеноменализма,
согласно
которой
обоюдное
взаимовлияние
имеется
только между
мозгом и
внешним миром,
и если при этом случайно
возникают
такие
явления, как
сознание и
самосознание,
то это якобы
только эпифеномен,
не имеющий
вообще
никакого влияния
на процесс
взаимообуславливания между
мозгом и
внешним
миром.
Наоборот, Экклс
настаивает
на том, что
самостоятельный
«Мир 2»
сознания и
самосознания
взаимодействует
с «Миром 1»
мозга
(который в
свою очередь взаимодействует
с внешней
реальностью)
– отсюда и
название его
теории
«дуалистический
интеракционизм».
Если, между
тем, какие-то
феномены
«Мира3»
взаимосвязанных
значений
случайно
появятся, то
они согласно
Экклсу суть
не что иное,
как
эпифеномен, который, в свою
очередь, не
имеет
никакого
влияния на
взаимодействие
между «Миром 1»
и «Миром 2». Эпифеноменализм
выжил, он
лишь
переместился
на один
уровень
внутри
системы взаимосвязей.
С
позиции
этого
эпифеноменализма
«Мира 3» стоит
внимательно
посмотреть
на аргументы,
которые
побудили
Экклса
отклонить
аналогичный
эпифеноменализм
«Мира 2». Эти
аргументы
сформулированы
Поппером,
который в своих
главах
совместной
книги Поппера
и Экклса
показал:
«С
дарвинистской
точки зрения,
мы должны подвергать
рассмотрению
ценность психических
процессов
для
выживания...
Дарвинисты
должны
смотреть на
«душу» – то
есть, на психические
процессы и
нашу
способность
производить психические
действия и
реакции, – как на
телесный
орган,
сформированный
под давлением
естественного
отбора… Точка зрения
дарвиниста
должна быть
таковой:
сознание и
вообще
умственные
процессы должны
рассматриваться
(и, если
возможно, объясняться)
как
результаты
эволюции в
ходе
естественного
отбора».6
Явления
«Мира 2» развиваются в
тандеме с
увеличением
сложности
мозга, рассуждал Экклс на
Всемирном
Философском
Конгрессе; и
все же,
согласно
теории
эволюции,
только те структуры
и процессы
развиваются
в ходе естественного
отбора, которые
вносят
значимый
вклад в
выживание.
Если «Мир 2» не
имеет
значения в
этом процессе,
то теория
эволюции не
может
объяснить его
развитие.
В
сущности, мы
должны
признать
применимость
этой же
логики и к
«Миру 3»
межиндивидуальных
явлений.
В
своем докладе
Экклс
(остающийся в
пределах
первых двух «Миров»)
подводит
итог тому,
что стало
известно ко
времени
Всемирного
Философского
Конгресса о
микроструктурных
механизмах мозга:
что мы знаем
о
локализации
нервных клеток
и их связях
друг с
другом. Он
указал, что выявленный
в ходе
исследования
мозга механизм
не может
преобразовывать
физические
стимулы,
исходящие от
окружающей
среды, в
психические
явления,
проявляющиеся
на выходе
системы (в
целенаправленном
поведении,
речи). Следовательно,
мы вынуждены
принять, что явления
сознания
либо не
существуют
даже на
выходе
центральной
нервной
системы; либо
что они
существует
уже на ее
входе.
Первое
предположение
было отклонено
Экклсом на
основе
вышеупомянутых
дарвинистских
соображений.
Таким
образом,
конечный
вывод Экклса
на Всемирном
Философском
Конгрессе
состоял в
том, что
«самосознающий
разум»
априорно
существует
как «Мир 2», и что
часть
операционных
единиц коры
головного
мозга (около 2
миллионов
модулей,
каждый,
соответственно,
построенный
из
приблизительно
5,000 нервных
клеток)7
образует
«мозг-связник» (“liaison brain”)8,
который
служит окном
из «Мира 1» в «Мир
2».
Теоретические
выводы
Экклса (и
большинства
других
исследователей
мозга)
опираются на
логику,
которую
естествознание
унаследовало
от классической
механики. «Из
древних
теорий мы восприняли
идею частиц
вместе с
научным словарем,
основанным
на ней»,
указал
лауреат
Нобелевской
премии Шредингер,
добавив, что
«эта идея
неправильна.
Она
постоянно
направляет
наше
размышление на
поиск
объяснений, которые
очевидно
вообще не
имеют смысла.
Такая
структура
мысли
предполагает
нечто, что не
существует в
реальных
частицах». Из
всех
естественных
наук физика
первой отступила
от этой
логики, когда
после ряда
кризисов на
рубеже 19-го и 20-го веков
она выдвинула
концепцию,
что «все -
абсолютно
все - является
частицей и в
то же самое
время полем.
Вся материя
имеет
непрерывную
структуру,
представленную
полем, так же,
как и
дискретную структуру,
представленную
частицей».9
Возвращаясь к
нашей проблеме, в
данном случае к
«объяснениям, которые очевидно
вообще не
имеют
смысла»,
поищем, что
из
навязанного
корпускулярно
ориентированной
логикой
нашего суждения
имеет
отношение к
вопросу:
каким образом
состояние
пространственно
обособленного
индивидуального
тела влияет
на состояние
других тел,
обособленных
от него – как
нейрон
влияет на
другие
нервные
клетки, модуль
нейронов на
другие
модули,
определенная
часть
нервной
системы на
другие её части,
или вся
нервная
система на
другие телесные
органы? Тогда
ответ,
полученный
на основе
«корпускулярной
логики»,
будет таким: пространственно
тела
взаимодействуют
лишь в той
степени, в
какой они
вступают в пространственный
контакт на
своих
внешним границах.
Это
была та самая
логика,
которая
всегда применялась,
в частности,
для
понимания значения,
хотя для
такой логики
последнее
всегда оставалось
загадочным.
Начиная с
полемики между
Платоном и
Аристотелем
было трудно установить,
расположено
ли значение в
пределах
пространственно
разграниченных
тел
индивидуальных
вещей, или
оно
существует как
идея,
обособленная
от каждой из
них. Еще труднее
сказать,
будет ли
значение
переходить в
организм от
вещи при
вступлении
организма в
контакт с
внешним
индивидуальным
объектом (в
отношении
которого, как
только что
было указано,
невозможно
сказать, присуще
ли ему
значение).
Наконец,
вообще в
высшей
степени
невероятно
установить,
воздействует ли
значение
психически только
тогда, когда
оно
проникает в
индивидуальный
организм.
«Корпускулярная
логика»
пытается
справиться с
проблемой
значения
посредством
преобразования
ее в знакомость: как будто бы
значение
было
перемещено
от вещи в
организм и
уже
закрепилось бы в одной
из частей сего последнего, той,
что в
принципе
идентифицируется
как ответственная
за память
этого
организма. При
этом, однако,
нельзя
априорно отклонить
возможность,
что значение
может иметь
психическое
воздействие
даже когда
оно отделено
от всех
индивидуальных
организмов, располагаясь
в
сверхиндивидуальной
системе
языка,
культуры и
т.д. (точно так
же, как значение
«в себе»
возможно
обособлено
от всех
индивидуальных
вещей).
«Корпускулярная
логика», если и
учитывает
эту
последнюю
возможность,
тем не менее
навязывает
фактам свой
собственный способ
истолкования.
Прежде всего,
она
представляет
язык как склад обособленных друг
от друга частиц
(т.е. априорно
данных
ярлыков),
которые являлись
бы
носителями
значений (которые предполагются
также
заданными
априорно) тем
же способом,
как реальные вещи должны
выступать
носителями
согласно той
же
«корпускулярной логике». Превращение
значения,
носимого
лингвистическим ярлыком, в
психический фактор
такая логика
может понимать
опять-таки
только,
предполагая,
что
лингвистический
ярлык,
соприкасаясь
с индивидом,
преобразуется
из внешнего
во
внутренний
фактор: находит
посредством
процесса
кодирования корпускулярный
проводник,
локализованный
в
теоретически
хорошо
опознаваемом
месте в
индивидуальном
теле.
Согласно
такой логике,
без хотя бы косвенного
контакта с
индивидуальным
телом тот
факт, что
язык
включает
значения, был
бы
психологически
столь же
иррелевантен,
как и факт
бытия вещей в
окружающей
это
индивидуальное
тело среде до
установления
контакта
между средой
и этим телом.
Модель
мозга Джона
Сентаготаи (Szentagothai)
|
Основание
для отказа
Экклса
заниматься таким
(и любым
другим) видом
проблем «Мира
3», и
причина, побудившая его к вышеприведённому
высазыванию о том,
что
структура
мозга не
приспособлена
к
преобразованию
физических
стимулов, поступающих
от
окружающей
среды, в
психические
процессы,
проявляющиеся
на выходе мозга,
заданы
одной и той же
«корпускулярной
логикой».
В
то время, как
эта логика
вынудила
Экклса искать
ответы на
вопросы,
которые,
согласно рассуждению
Шредингера,
неправильно
поставлены,
Дж.
Сентаготаи,
отправляясь
от тех же
самых фактов
(обнаруженных
частично исследованиями
Экклса),
пришел к
абсолютно другому
теоретическому
заключению.
Хотя предложенная
им модель
структуры и
опрераций
коры мозга признаёт,
что кора
является
«поразительно
точной
неврологической
машиной с
генетически
определенным
«набором
проводов», он
допускает,
что «на нее
накладывается...
переменная и
взаимно
симметричная
(квази-случайная)
система
связей»10.
Согласно
первой части
этого
описания, кора
имеет, таким
образом,
структуру
типа частицы;
вторая часть,
однако,
описывает
структуру,
подобную
структуре
поля: состояния в ней
определены,
но созвездие
частиц,
реализующее каждую
из этих состояний,
организуется только
впоследствии,
как
«динамический
рисунок» (dinamic pattern)
квази-случайной
системы
связей.
Суть
идеи
Сентаготаи
такова: даже
если мы не
можем рассматривать
структуру
мозга, понятую
как систему
проводящих
связей, в качестве
механизма,
производящего
психический
феномен,
такой
результат
действительно
может быть
произведен
мозгом, если
мы рассматриваем
его как
динамический
рисунок,
возникающий
в процессе
его операций
.
Чтобы
объяснять
образование
динамических
рисуноков, мы
должны
сначала
объяснить,
как части тела,
ни одна из
которых сама
по себе не
способна
производить
определённый
динамический
рисунок, могут
создать
орган,
функционирование
которого
ведет к появлению
такой модели,
даже если
связь этих
частей не
может быть
поддержана
«четкой и генетически
детерминированной
системой
проводящих
связей».
Сентаготаи
дает нам впечатляющее
описание,
которое,
однако, имеет
дело только с
явлением, без
действительного
объяснения
формирования
самих
суперструктур.
Свою позицию
он
иллюстрирует
примером
стереоскопического
восприятия
сдвоенных
изображений,
используемых
Б.Джулеш.11
Перед правым
и левым
глазами
участников эксперимента
в
соответствующем
порядке Джулеш
помещал наборы
точек. Один
из них был
произведен
компьютером
путём
случайных
комбинаций;
другой был
получен на
основе
первого;
причём предполагалось,
что этот
набор точек
образует
трехмерную
конфигурацию,
видимую левым
глазом,
другой набор
составлен из
точек, образующих
такую же
конфигурацию,
видимую
правым
глазом. При
рассмотрении
обоими
глазами требуется
приблизительно
8 секунд,
чтобы преобразовать
случайные
скопления
точек в
упорядоченное
трехмерное
изображение. Это
Сентаготаи
считает
фактом
возникновения
динамической
модели,
такой, что
«каждый хотя
бы однажды
(!!),
сформировавший
такую модель,
т.е. невидимую
трехмерную
форму,
повторно
может за долю
секунды
восстановить
их очертания,
визуализировать
их среди
скопления
точекдаже
спустя
месяцы и не
зная, какой
из однажды
увиденных
образцов
будет ему
показан.
Другими
словами, если
чей-либо мозг
хотя
бы однажды
упорядочил
две
абсолютно
бессмысленных
россыпи
точек в
единственно
возможную организованную
модель, [...] то её
можно будет
мгновенно
восстановить».12
Другую
крайность по
отношению к
описанию
явления,
представляют
кибернетические
спекуляции
о механизме.
Последние
определяют
формальные
предпосылки
для
образования
функциональной
системы. Это
касается
организации
такой суперструктуры,
которая не
только
функционирует
по-новому,
обнаруживая
в своей
целостности
нечто
большее, чем
только
суммарное
функционирование
обособленных
структур: новая
организация
заставляет
даже эти
очень обособленным
структуры
изменять
свое прежнее
функционирование.
Согласно
формальному
анализу Анохина,13
любая
функциональная
система
должна состоять
из
конструктов,
действие
которых образует
следующую
последовательность:
центростремительный
синтез
стимулов,
воздействующих
на систему;
принятие
решения на
основе этого
синтеза;
сохранение
принятого таким
образом
решения;
инструкция
как действовать;
обратное
сообщение о
результате действия;
увязка
сообщения с
этим
решением и,
если
необходимо,
исправление
последнего в
соответствии
с
результатом
сравнения.
Анализ
Анохина и
другие
подобные
кибернетические
аргументы
утверждают,
что такие
функции развивают
свои
собственные
органы,
которые
делают своей
целью
определенные
факторы
окружающей
среды, чтобы
синхронизировать
свое
собственное
состояние с
состоянием
этих целей.
В
ходе
синхронизации
происходят
также изменения
и в состоянии
системы, и
одним из этих
изменений,
возможно
наиболее
важным, может
быть
создание
чрезвычайно
интегрированной
суперструктуры,
составленной
из частичных
структур,
действие
которых, даже
суммарное, не
способно
изменить
фактор окружающей
среды в той
степени,
какая
требуется
для синхронизации.
Другими
словами, изменение
фактора
окружающей
среды достигается
посредством
вновь
образованной
функциональной
системы.
С
другой
стороны, образование
функциональной
системы будет
действием
этого фактора
окружающей
среды: до тех
пор, пока
этот
последний не
появляется,
требуя
действия
суперструктуры,
существующей
в тот момент
только в ее
частичных
структурах,
компоненты
этой будущей
суперструктуры
пребывают в
их не
интегрированных
состояниях,
готовые к различным
употреблениям,
но
непригодные
для
функционироваения
в
критической
ситуации.
Если
мы считаем
организацию
и поведение функциональной
системы
результатом
одного и того
же действия
(performance), то мы
можем
говорить
относительно
этого
действия, что
его
орган - это
единая
суперструктура,
к
которой
действительно
принадлежат
и действующая
в данный
момент
система, и
факторы
среды,
которые
прежде
выстраивали
систему из её
собственных
частичных
структур.
Пониманию
суперструктуры,
которая
содержит и
систему, и
некоторые
факторы
окружающей
среды, будет
препятствовать
«идея
относительно
частиц,
которые мы
приняли от
более ранних
теорий и
научного
словаря,
основанного
на этом»,
относительно
чего я уже
приводил
шредингеровскую
критику.
«Структура
мысли, содержащая
элементы,
которые не
существуют в
реальных
частицах»,
наводит на
мысль о
системе, части
которой
априорно
заданы
посредством их
пространственной
связи, а что
касается фактора
окружающей
среды, то он
может осуществлять
любое
действие,
релевантное
системе, только
установив с
ней
пространственную
связь.
Этот
довод
опровергается
открытием,
что пространственная
связь
структур ("их
проводящие
связи) сама
по себе не
превращает
их в
операциональную
единицу, но
эта функциональная
система (как
это
предлагает
модель Сентаготаи,
и как
показывает
наглядный пример
Джулеша)
сначала
должна
возникнуть из
случайных
связей как
«динамический
паттерн»,
построенный
на
проводящих
связях. Однако
если дело
обстоит
именно так,
то не было бы
абсурдным
предположить,
что
функциональная
система
может быть
образованна
из случайных
отношений,
которые
только
отчасти основываются
на
пространственной
связи.
Такие
случайные
отношения
существуют
между всеми
уровнями
биологических
организаций
и
соответствующей
им
окружающей
средой. Если
мы последуем
за
Шредингером
в его отказе
от логики, которая
различила бы
между
частицей,
имеющей
точную
локализацию,
и теми,
которые рассматриваются
только как
условия
первой частицы
при
установлении
связи между
ними, то мы
можем
рассматривать
структуры
предположительно
разного рода
в качестве единой
суперструктуры.
Таким
образом
когда,
например,
группа клеток
для своего
функционирования
нуждается в
точном
распределении
тонуса между
клетками,
тогда вторая
группа
клеток,
которая регулировала
бы это
распределение
тонуса, не
будет
рассматриваться
такой логикой
как
относящаяся
к внешним
обстоятельствам.
Подобная
логика
описывает
действующее
целое как
функцию
суперструктуры,
которая
включает и
группу
клеток, чей
тонус регулируется,
и группу
клеток,
выполняющую
это регулирование.
Такая
логика,
однако,
должна
столкнуться
с тем
обстоятельством,
что по
отношению к
суперструктуре,
которая
описана
здесь как орган
исследуемой
функции,
можно
высказать
аналогичные
соображения.
Сентаготаи
указывает,
что для
модулей,
построенных
из нейронов,
«мы не можем
исключать
возможность
того, что
соседние
"суперструктуры",
или
вступившие в
связь сети
нейронов
создадут
новую
"супер-суперструктуру"
более высокой
иерархии»14. Та
же самая
взаимосвязь
должна быть
установлена
для всех
уровней
биологических
организаций.
Однако,
до сих пор
всегда
случалось
так, что в том
или ином
пункте эта
логика при
последующей
интерпретации
делала
уступку другой
логике,
которая
отличает
частицу,
предположительно
имеющую
отношение к
рассматриваемой
функции и
теми, которые
рассматриваются
как влияющие
на процесс в
зависимости
от того,
вступили они
в контакт с
«подходящим»
телом или
нет. Уже взаимосвязи
центральной
нервной
системы и периферии
часто
интерпретировались
в соответствии
с
традиционным
подходом,
согласно
которому
функционирование
центральной
нервной
системы
зависит от
периферии в
той степени,
в какой на
входе она
получит
стимулы от
последней
посредством
«точной
передачи сообщений»,
и затем эта
центральная
система (даже
если она
понимается в
соответствии
с новой
логикой)
будет влиять
на периферию
посредством
стимулов на
выходе. В
других
случаях логический
сдвиг
происходит в
интерпретации
взаимодействия
между
нервной
системой в
целом и
органами,
которыми она
управляет. Но
во всяком
случае это
происходит
всегда, как
только
научный
интерес
сосредоточивается
на
взаимодействии
между
индивидуальным
организмом и
его
окружающей
средой.
Случилось
так, что для
психологии
базисная
система
референции в
научном
наблюдении
сосредоточилась
на уровне индивидуального
организма.
Что касается
биологии, то
там такая
стадия была
преходящей,
описание в
терминах
клеток уступило
в настоящее
время свою
позицию (или
разделило
эту позицию )
молекулярной
биологии, с
одной
стороны, и
популяционной
биологии, с
другой.
Своим
пристрастием
к индивидуальному
организму в
качестве
референта
психология
должна быть
обязана
своему философскому
наследию.
Именно
заключенная
в рамки
философии
психология
считала, что
сознание
указывает с
одной
стороны, на отраженный
им объект
у, а с другой –
на
индивидуальный
субъект
этого
сознания. Это
философское
наследие было
соединено с
новой
ориентацией
психологии,
эмансипирующейся
от философии,
посредством
поворота к
биологии,
которая в то время,
когда это
произошло,
была
поглощена описанием
явлений на
уровне
организмов.
Таким
образом,
Самость,
индивидуальный
субъект
сознания
предполагает
материальный
субстрат в
индивидуальном
организме. В то
же самое
время другое
потенциальное
наследие
философии,
представленное
в доктрине сверхиндивидуального
Духа,
было для
психологии потеряно
из-за
отсутствия
соответствующей
биологической
структуры
референции.
Однако,
если
значение -
действительно
межиндивидуальное
психическое
явление, о
чем
говорилось
выше, это
должно иметь
некоторое
отношение к проблемам
сверхиндивидуального
Духа. Таким
образом,
вывод
Поппера
относительно
« Мира 3 » можно
было бы
избежать
только
способом,
аналогичным
размышлениям
Сентаготаи о проблемах
«Мира 2»,
посредством
отсылки к функциональным
«супер-суперструктурам».
Только
на сей раз
функциональные
«супер-суперструктуры»
должны
переступить
границы индивидуального
организма.
Теперь
я собираюсь
размышлять о
функциональных
формированиях,
превосходящих
границы
индивидуального
организма и,
возможно,
имеющих
отношение к
психическим
явлениям.
Описание
функциональной
системы
Анохиным,
исходит в
конце концов,
исключительно
из структур в
пределах
тела;
структуры
окружающей
среды
рассматриваются
только как источники
афферентации
и реафферентации.
Теория
деятельности
Леонтьева,
Лурия,
Запорожца и
других
выходит за
пределы этой
модели. Она
изучает
функции,
органы которых
включают не
только
отделы
центральной
нервной
системы, но
также и самые
разнообразные
(нервные,
соматические,
вегетативные)
структуры
индивидуального
тела; и
поскольку
речь идёт о
психических
функциях, рассматривается
предметная
деятельностью
индивида ,
организуемая
посредством
ее орудий.
Так как эта
теория (как у
Выготского)
утверждает,
что эти
орудия
являются в то
же самое
время
знаками, то
есть
сущностями исторически
произведенными
культурой, эта
концепция
позволяет
теории
отнести человеческое
сознание к
двум
структурам
одновременно,
рассматривая
его как продукт
функционарования
и
индивидуальных
мозговых
структур и
межиндивидуальных
культурных
структур.
Но
если у нас
есть теория
относительно
того
же самого
функционирования,
с одной
стороны,
внутренних и,
с другой,
внешних
структур, это
подразумевает
теорию
функционирования
той же
самой
суперструктуры,
составленной
как из
структур
внутри
индивидуального
организма,
так и вне его,
внутри
окружающей
его среды.
Согласно
такой теории,
когда функция,
создающая
свой орган
–предметная
деятельность,
тогда
произведенная
ею структура
преодолевает
границы
индивидуального
организма.15
Сравнивая
свою позднюю
теорию со
своей первоначальной
позицией,
Гибсон так
описывает
происшедшие
в его
взглядах
изменения: « […] в
то время я
исходил в
объяснении
зрительного
восприятия
из анализа
сетчаточного
образа, ;
теперь,
напротив, моя
отправная точка
состоит в
том, что я
называю
объемлющим оптическим
строем (an ambient optic array).
Теперь я
убежден в том,
что мы должны
экологически
смотреть на
проблему
восприятия .»16
Это
изменение во
взглядах
было вызвано
осознанием
Гибсоном
того, что
зрение нельзя
объяснять
посредством
анализа воздействия
стимулов на
сетчатку, так
как восприятие
может
сохранять
устойчивость,
несмотря на
меняющиеся
стимулы.
Гибсон анализирует
четыре
случая, когда
восприятие
остается
неизменным
несмотря на
меняющиеся
стимулы: (1) изменение
в освещении, (2)
перемещение
наблюдателя,
(3) замены в
выборке
объемлющего
оптического
строя, и (4)
преобладание
устойчивости
вопреки
локальным
изменениям.»17
Школа
Гибсона не
принимает
также
объяснение,
предлагаемое
гештальт
психологией,
так как
последняя
теория
предлагает (в
качестве
альтернативы
изменению
образа на
сетчатке в
качестве
ответа на
изменение
непосредственных
стимулов
окружающей
среды) анализ
формы,
появляющиеся
на плоской
поверхности (
поверхность
стены, экран,
или лист
бумаги, помещенной
напротив
наблюдателя),
который индивидуум
корректирует
в
соответствии
с врожденными
структурами.
. Гибсон
проводит различие
между
абстрактным
геометрическим
пространством,
в котором
только и
существуют
такие формы,
и
естественной
средой, в
которой обитают
представители
данного
биологического
вида..
Вывод
Гибсона
состоит в
том, что
невозможно
объяснить
осмысленное
восприятие
животным его
окружающей
среды, если
рассматривать
только, как
внутренние
структуры индивидуального
тела
животного
(например, нервная
система), производят
психическое
действие ,и
не принимать
в внимание
то, как
структуры
окружающей
среды позволяют
его
выполнение.
Любое
психическое
действие
определено
взаимной
совместимостью
возможности (affordances) и
эффективности.
Согласно
определению
Гибсона,
«возможность
чего-либо –
это определенная
комбинация
свойств
вещества и
его поверхности
применительно
к животному»18.
Это
определение
получило
свое
завершение в
определении
Тарвея и Шоу,
данного ими
понятию,
которое они
считали
идентичным гибсоновской
теории:
«эффективность
любого
живого
существа -
это
определенная
комбинация
функций его
тканей и
органов,
взятых в
отношении к
окружающей
среде»19.
Авторы
добавляют к
этим двум
определениям,
что животное
с его
структурой
эффективности
и окружающая
среда с ее
структурой
возможности
полностью
симметричные
факторы
психических
действий: «
согласно
этой
концепции [...]
окружающая
среда
определена
как набор
возможностей
или структура
возможностей
[... и] животное
определено
как набор
эффективностей,
или структура
эффективности
[...].Экологическая
ниша
–описание
структуры возможностей
окружающей
среды в
отношении к
отдельного
вида; а вид -
описание
эффективности
Жизни в
отношении
специфической
экониши. И мы
можем в
соответствии
с логикой
совместимости
схематизировать
понятия
возможности
и эффективности
следующим
способом:
Событие
или ситуация
окружающей
среды X допускает
активность Y
по отношению
к животному Z, если и
только если
между X и Z
достигаются
определенные
отношения
взаимной
совместимости
[...].
Животное
Z может
осуществлять
деятельность
Y в отношении
события или
ситуации
окружающей
среды X, если
и только если
между X и Z
достигаются
определенные
отношения
взаимной
совместимости
[...]. »20
Этологи
используют
этот термин,
чтобы описать
ряд событий,
посредством
которых часть
животной или
человеческой
популяции отграничивает
часть своей
окружающей
среды и
становится
взаимно
ограниченной
ею. Такое
поведение
посредством
маркировки определенными
знаками
части данной
окружающей
среды
превращает
ее в территорию,
в то же время
осуществляющие
это поведение
подвергают
себя
некоторой
маркировке, превращающей
данную часть
популяции в
хорошо
идентифицированную
группу.
Отныне эта
отграниченная
территория и
эта
ограниченная
группа упорядочивают
друг друга
территориальным
поведением:
помеченные
таким
образом индивиды
не могут
покидать
территорию,
помеченную
ими больше
чем на точно
определенное
расстояние
и/или период
времени, и
посторонние
не могут
подступать к
этой
территории
ближе, чем на
критическое
расстояние.
Если же они
это сделают,
то
спровоцируют
защищающих
свою территорию
на боевые
действия.
Насколько
территория
уже
отграничена
группой и
группа
территорией,
пребывание
внутри или
вне границы
территории и,
точно так же,
принадлежность
или нет к
данной
группе
выявляет
совершенно
различную
предрасположенность
индивидуума
к четко
определенной
деятельности
(например, в
борьбе или
спаривании).
Такое
изменение в
организме,
предрасположенном
или не предрасположенном
исполнять
строго определенную
деятельность
в
соответствии
с фактическим
состоянием
территориальной
организации
хорошо
просматривается
в боевом
поведением
колюшки (Gasterosteus aculeatus),
готовящейся к
спариванию.
Силовые
отношения
борьбы у
вовлеченного
в нее
индивида
изменяется в
зависимости
от того,
находится ли
данная особь
рыбы внутри
или вне ее
собственной
территории.
Согласно
наблюдениям
Конрада Лоренца,
боевитость
колюшки
находится в обратных
отношениях с
расстоянием
между нею и
ее гнездом; в
собственном
гнезде она -
жестокий
борец, но чем
дальше она
отплывает от
своей
штаб-квартиры,
тем слабее
становится
её мотивация
к нападению.
Когда
встречается
две мужских
особи
колюшки, мы
можем
довольно
точно
предсказывать
результат их
борьбы: Лоренц
утверждает,
что
обратится в
бегство та
рыба, которая
находится
дальше от
своего
гнезда ,
прибавляя к
сказанному,
что вблизи
своего
гнезда даже
мельчайшая
особь может
расправиться
с самым
большим
врагом.
Можно
(хотя обычно
этого не
делают)
переложить
это на язык
Гибсона и
сказать, что
территориальное
поведение
влияет на
перераспределение
отношений
между
возможностями
окружающей
среды и
эффективностью
животной
популяции.
Ключевым
фактором
такого перераспределения
является деятельность
маркировки,
нанесение
знаков на
определенную
часть окружающей
среды,
преобразованной
таким способом
в территорию
и,
аналогично,
на часть популяции,
преобразованной
тем самым в
группу.
Знаки,
относящиеся
не к части
окружающей среды,
но к части
популяции
так же, как и
территориальные
знаки, могут
изменить
диспозицию
выполнения
точно
определенной
деятельности.
Например,
мужские
особи
данного вида
в процессе
спаривания
помечают
специфическим
биохимическим
веществом
женские
особи, чтобы
отвратить
других
самцов от спаривания
с этой
самкой, даже
и в том
случае, когда
попытка
оплодотворения
не удалась.
Более того,
исход борьбы
может
наложить
знаки на
позы, принимаемые
победителями
и
проигравшими,
и демонстрация
такой позы
может
определять
довольно
устойчивую
иерархическую
организацию,
независимо
от новых
поведенческих
испытаний.
Таким
образом, ни
группа,
устанавливающая
границы
территории,
ни
территория,
допускающая
установление
границ этой
группой, не
являются
механическим
объединением,
но обе
создаются
территориальным
поведением. В
моей
концепции
непосредственным
продуктом
возможностей
и
эффективностей
будет не
активность,
как
утверждает
Гибсон, но функциональные
«супер-суперструктуры»,
которые
превышают
границы
индивидуального
организма.
К
теории
структур,
производящих
значениe
Такое
объединение
трех
вышеупомянутых
теоретических
открытий -
предметной
деятельности,
взаимно
согласованных
структур возможностей
и
эффективностей
и территориальной
организации
групп - может
позволить выявить
структуру,
которая
является
органом,
ведающим значениями.
Однако
теоретически
такой синтез
вовсе не
легко
выполнить.
учитывая, что
Территориальное
поведение в
том виде, как оно
рассматривается
экологией, не
имеет никакого
отношения к
историко-культурному
измерению;
Предметная
деятельность,
рассматриваемая
в
соответствии
с теорией
деятельности
Леонтьева, не
имеет ничего
общего ни с
территориальным,
ни с
групповым
измерением21;
Что
же касается
экологической
структуры восприятия,
то Гибсоном
не
рассматриваются
ни
историческое,
ни
социальное
его измерения.
Однако
без такого
синтеза
нельзя
обойтись,
когда мы
должны иметь
дело со
значениями,
потому что
для
последнего
одинаково
существенны
как
историко-культурное,
так и социо -
территориальное
измерения .
Выготский
подчеркивал
необходимость
учитывать
социальный
аспект
значения,
потому что
считал, что
значение
(если
воспользоваться
его выше цитируемым
высказыванием)
- это не
только обобщение(генерализация),
но также и общение
(коммуникация).
Это означает,
что оно представляет
собой
межиндивидуальное
измерение, вопреки
тому, что
ранее оно
считалось
внутрииндивидуальным
актом.
Нам
известен
аргумент
Выготского
относительно
того, что
внутрииндивидуальные
действия
являются
производными
от межиндивидуальных
действий. В
этом смысле
(в терминах,
относящихся
к зоне ближайшего
развития )
обобщение
также должно
иметь свое
психосоциологическое
происхождение.
Однако,
как известно
в настоящее
время, социальное
измерение
этой
деятельности
является ещё
более
существенным.
Недавние
наблюдения,
касающиеся
онтогенеза
человеческого
сознания,
подтверждают
предположение
о том, что семантические
значения
происходят
из социальной
категоризации.22
Оказалось,
что ребенок
способен
раньше преобразовывать
некоторые
оттенки
подобий и
различий в
категориальное
подобие одних
факторов и их
категориальное
отличие от
других, когда
он сам - один
из этих
факторов, чем
в том случае,
когда все эти
факторы
являются
всего лишь
объектами
окружающей
ребенка
среды. Ранняя
социальная
категоризация
не является
сознательным
актом
размышления:
она
опосредована
бессознательным
процессом
семиозиса, в
котором
детские
разрозненные
звуки,
движения,
позы,
вазомоторные
или другие
телесные проявления
формируется
как носители
значений (signifiers),
которые
привязаны к
параллельно
сформированным
социальным
категориям
как их
значащим
факторам (signified factors) так,
чтобы
подобные
факторы
символизировались
подобными, и
различные -
различными значениями.
Созданные
таким
образом
социальные
категории не
представляют
подобия или
различия
просто между
индивидуумами
как таковыми:
индивидуумы
обращаются с
ними как
занимающими
определенные
места в
структурах,
выходящих за
пределы индивидуального
организма.
Посредством
этих
процессов
ребенок
развивает
свою
способность
психологически
структурировать
реальное
топологическое
место как территорию,
приписывая
постоянные
положения
определенным
людям, в то же
время
допуская для
других людей
или других
положений
некоторый произвольный
выбор.
Появляется
логический
аппарат,
основанный
на
сформированных
таким
образом
социальных
категориях и
на умственных
действиях с
ними, который
позволяет
ребенку
структурировать
тем же способом
внешнее
топологическое
место объектов,
коррелированных
с социальным
пространством
и,
следовательно,
иметь дело со
значениями
этих
объектов.23
Более
органическую
роль атрибут
объекта
играет в
актах
социальной
категоризации,
когда
ребенок
обучается
логически
действовать
с этим признаком.
Так,
например,
ребенок в
18-20-месячном возрасте
способен к
распределять
подобные
объекты
между собой и
другими
людьми, и затем
различать
каждый из
этих
объектов по признаку
их
принадлежности
определённому
человеку.
Тот же самый
ребенок не
способен до
трехлетнего
возраста (или
даже,
согласно
некоторым
авторам, 4 или 5)
дифференцировать
или идентифицировать
объекты по
признаку их
цвета.
Классические
исследования
Пиаже
установили,
что только
когда
ребенок
провел
несколько
лет в школе,
он
приобретает
навык обращаться
с
абстрактными
количественными
отношениями
вроде равной,
большей или
меньшей
длины, объема
и т.д.
независимо
от их цветовых
характеристик.
Однако, Дуаз,
Муньи и
Перре-Клермон24
зарегистрировали
подобные
действия у детей
дошкольного
возрасте,
изменив
первоначальные
условия
эксперимента,
соединяя рассматриваемые
количественные
отношения с
организацией
социальных
отношений среди
детей.
Например, в
ходе
выполнения
задачи
разделения
жидкости
поровну
между собой
дети подводились
к открытию
всегда
равного количества
жидкости в
сосудах
различной
формы.25
Моя
собственная
дочь в
полевом эксперименте
в возрасте 4,8
лет
осуществила
довольно сложное
действие
проектирования
трехмерной
геометрической
структуры на
плоскость и
затем
произвела ее
преобразование.
Ребенок
сидел в
автобусе,
который ехал
по набережной
под мостом
через
туннель,
построенный
с целью
исключить
пересечение
железнодорожного
переезда с
мостом и
набережной.
Ее трехлетняя
сестра
воскликнула:
"Ах, какой
длинный туннель!",
на что
старшая
девочка
заявила с презрением,
что "он был бы
длинным, если
бы мы ехали
вот так" (она
использовала
свою руку, чтобы
обозначить
направление,
перпендикулярное
к пути
следования
автобуса, что
фактически
соответствовало
направлению не
туннеля, но
моста), "но
тогда",
продолжала она,
"мы бы
обязательно
разрушили
туннель".
Мать этих
детей
находилась в
то время за границей
и, двумя
днями позже,
старшая
девочка
«писала ей
письмо», то
есть,
информировала
ее
посредством
различных
рисунков о
том, что
происходило
в семействе
за время ее
отсутствия. Я
попросил
девочку
нарисовать,
как мы
проехали
через тот
туннель, и
тогда она
сделала
рисунок
вертикального
разреза туннеля
и
представила
дорожку
нашего автобуса
в этом
пункте.
Затем, после
следуя другой
моей
инструкции
того же
самого стиля,
она еще раз
нарисовала
тот же самый
срез с воображаемой
дорожкой,
через
которую
автобус должен
был бы
разрушить
туннель.
Важное достижение
в этом
эксперименте
состояло в
том, что девочка
преобразовывала
структуру
места, в
котором сама
она занимала
определенное
положение.
Эти
соображения
позволяют по
новому взглянуть
на
особенности
предложенного
Карлом
Поппером
подхода.
Исследуя
проблему
онтологического
статуса «Мира
3 », Поппер хотя
и допускал
существование
таких объектов
«Мира 1»,
которые
получают
свое существование
в качестве
объективации
человеческой
деятельности
и, как
таковые,
воплощают
объекты,
принадлежащие
к «Миру 3»,
считает, однако,
что эти
факторы ни в
коем случае
не исчерпывают
«Мир 3», который
включает
наряду с содержанием
значений
также и их форму.
Логические и
в том числе,
например,
математические
отношения не
существуют
воплощенными
в «Мире 1» вещей
и процессов,
поэтому нельзя
проследить
их
происхождение
из структур
(например,
мозга) и их
функционирования
в рамках
индивидуальных
организмов. Но
еще важнее
то, что это
опровергает
довольно
широко
распространенную
в психологической
мысли ошибку:
такие
отношения не
могут быть сведены
ни к
процессам
индивидуального
сознания, ни
к их
результатам,
сохраняемым
в индивидуальной
памяти.
Каков
же тогда
онтологический
статус таких
форм, которые
обеспечивают
возможность,
например, для
субъективного
сознания индивидуума,
делать
относительно
них открытия,
вроде
обнаружения
противоречий,
которые
должны
существовать
там (где? – этот
вопрос
является
критическим
для Поппера),
осознавать
их и, после
идентификации
их в качестве
проблем,
находить их
решения.
Итак,
в этой статье
были
выдвинуты
два
предположения,
позволяющие
нам принять вопрос
Поппера, не
принимая
предложенный
им ответ на
него: первое -
относительно
связей между
операциями с
логическими
категориями,
значениями, с
одной
стороны, и
формированием
социальных
категорий,
социальных идентичностей
- с другой; и
второе -
относительно
психической
деятельности,
основанной
на экстрапсихической
суперструктуре,
выходящей за
пределы
индивидуального
организма
(перемещая и
первое, и
второе от
организма к
структуре,
включающей
также
факторы окружающей
среды, и от
индивидуума
к
сверхиндивидуальному
образованию).
В той
мере, в какой
эти два
предположения
имеют силу,
мы можем
выводить
логические
структуры и
операции из
реальных
социальных
структур и
операций
внутри этой
превосходящей
индивидуальный
организм
организации.
Обсуждаемый
здесь
межиндивидуальный
характер
этих
структур и
операций ни в
коем случае
не может быть
сведен к тем,
которые относились
в текстах
Выготского к
зоне ближайшего
развития. Эти
структуры и
операции не
должны
устанавливаться
в контактах с
людьми
(например,
взрослыми),
которые
неизбежно
были бы
слишком
продвинутыми
в своем
развитии,
чтобы
создать
возможности
для развития
детей: :
взаимодействие
детей между
собой может
так же
развивать
каждого из
них, как и
общение со
взрослым. С
другой
стороны,
межиндивидуальные
структуры и
операции не
исчезают с
необходимостью
после того,
как
разовьются
внутрииндивидуальные
способности.
.
*
Мы
исследовали
противоречие
между двумя идеями
Выготского,
который, с
одной стороны,
указал на
важность
проблемы
значения,
если мы хотим
понимать
высшие человеческие
психические
действия, и, с
другой
стороны,
также на
необходимость
соотнесения
высших
психических
функций с структурой
мозга.
Противоречие
состояло в приписывании
межиндивидуального
психического
явления
внутрииндивидуальному
экстрапсихическому
механизму. И
решение
этого
противоречия
было найдено
в
рассмотрении
мозга как это
делает
Сентаготаи,
т.е. как
суперструктуры,
выходящей за
пределы
индивидуального
организма.
Согласно
этому
предположению
операции со
значениями -
это функции
такой
структуры, которая
является
столь же
материальной
функциональной
системой, как
мозг, и
в то же самое
время, такой
же
межиндивидуальной
организацией,
как и
значения.
Первичным
психическим
функционированием
этих
структур
является
социальная
категоризация,
но основанная
на этих
межсубъектных
отношениях
параллельно
возникает
деятельность
, которая уже
имеет дело с
объектами и,
следовательно,
опосредует
действия со
значениями.
Если
принять эти
предположения,
то мы сможем
проследить
истоки
логических
структур и
операций даже
самого
высокого
уровня,
например научных
или
поэтических
достижений, в
реальных
социальных
структурах и
действиях27 и,
таким
образом,
усовершенствовать
действительное
понимание
высшей
психической деятельности
человека.
Вaсилий
Дaвыдов и
судьбы нaшей
теории
...резкaя
тоскa
стaлa
ясною,
осознaнною
болью
Влaдимир
Мaяковский
Удастся ли облечь в
слово боль, которая
присоединяется
к
боли родных,
к тоске
друзей, к
скорби единомышленников?
*
Я
познaкомился
с Вaсилием
Вaсильевичем...
Cрaзу
нaдо
оговориться:
он для меня
Вaсилием Вaсильевичем
пробыл всего
чaсов десaть, a потом стaл Вaсей
Дaвыдовым,
кем и
остaвaлся
вплоть до
того мaртовского
дня, когдa нa
меня
свaлилaсь
весть из
Москвы о его
смерти.
Итaк,
я
познaкомился
с Вaсей в 1964-ом
году. 12-го мaя. В тот
день нa мою долю выпaло
двойное
знaкомство с
ним. Yтром
знaкомился с
ним зaочно,
посетив 91-ю
школу, где
кaждый рaз,
когдa меня
пленял урок
мaтемaтики в
первом
клaссе, чaровaл
урок
грaммaтики во
втором, мне говорили: это –
Вaсилий
Вaсильевич
Дaвыдов.
Потом вечером
после
Дaвыдовa-легенды
я
познaкомился
с Дaвыдовым-реaльностью;
нaс знaкомил нa
квaртире
Ильенковa Юрa
Дaвыдов, и мы целый
вечер спорили.
Cпорили,
конечно, о
судьбaх
психологии. В
эту мою
первую комaндировку в
советскую
психологию я
вëл дневник, a
когдa двaдцaть
пять лет
спустя я его опубликовaл, то
удивлялся:
после того,
кaк я уже, нa
третьей
неделе моего
пребывaния,
имел опыт
больше, чем
зaнимaтельных,
a всë же чинных
бесед с
Петром Яковлевичем и с
Aлексеем
Hиколaевичем,
кaк мы с Вaсей с
первого же
взглядa нaшли
для спорa
тaкие
проблемы, которые
были сaмыми фундaментaльными для
нaшей теории
тогдa, и
которые,
четверть векa
спустя, тaк и
остaлись
сaмыми
фундaментaльными
нaшими
нерешëнными
проблемaми. В
чaстности, мы
постaвили
вопрос о том,
можно ли утверждaть
о
потребности,
что онa,
подобно
вообще всему
психическому,
отрaбaтывaется
в
деятельности,
если при этом
деятельность
определяется
для нaс своим
мотивом,
являющимся
не чем иным,
кaк опредмеченной
потребностью.
Вообще,
сопостaвление
реaльности с легендой
остaвляет
мaло шaнсов
для первого,
я же унëс об
этом дне
нaшего
двойного
знaкомствa
первое
впечaтление,
что
Дaвыдов-реaльность
ещë лучше, чем
Дaвыдов-легендa.
Я почти обо
всëм, о чëм бы мы ни
говорили
тогдa, думaл, кaк
он, но он
почти обо
всëм, о чëм ни
думaли тогдa,
говорил
более свободно,
или с б”льшим
дерзaнием, нежели
я,
недвусмысленно
тaм, где я
оговaривaл сюжет.
Yже
позже, когдa, в
семидесятые
годы, мы с ним
стaли
друзьями,
меня это
дерзновение
в нëм не рaз
восхищaло.
Oднaжды он
вошëл в
троллейбус и
вдруг зaметил
меня,
стоявшего в
нескольких метрaх
от него в
толпе
пaссaжиров,
через головы
которых он
окликнул
меня, чтобы
поделиться
своим сaмым
свежим
интеллектуaльным
опытом,
спросив
звонким,
хорошо
слышным (и
дaлеко не
только мне
одному)
голосом,
читaл ли я... и
нaзвaл
новинку сaмиздaтa.
Когдa же я
ответил
отрицaтельно,
он мне внушил
немедленно
прочесть объект
нaшего
публичногого
обсуждения, и
ещë добaвил: “Tы
можешь взять
его у меня.”
При этом брежневский
зaстой был в
полном
рaзгaре, a Вaся ведь
был
директором
институтa.
A
когдa его
смещaли с
директорствa,
то его реестр
преступлений
содержaл
пункт о том,
что он
поддерживaл
контaкты с
невозврaщенцем
Л. Гaрaи. Прaвдa, Л.
Гaрaи никaким
невозврaщенцем не был, но Вaся
не мог
догaдывaться
о том, что
тогдa вообще
можно было
считaть
немыслимым:
что я обрëл
официaльное
позволение
влaстей
зaнимaться
экспортом
культурных
услуг во
Фрaнцию, в
Yниверситет
Hиццы. Геогрaфическое
месторaсположение
моего
университетa
рaсполaгaло к
легкомыслию,
и когдa я
легкомысленно
послaл одному
доброму
приятелю в
Москву
крaткое, в
рaмкaх
открытки с
Cредиземного
моря,
сообщение о
том, что я, мол,
стaл
профессором
этого
университетa,
тот не
поленился
доложить об
этом, кудa
следовaло. Из чего и было сделано зaключение
о том, что я,
вот,
невозврaщенец.
Этому
человеку
свой шaг я в
упрëк не
стaвлю: он действовaл
соглaсно
зaконaм местa и
времени.
Oднaко же нa
фоне пaмяти
об этих сaмых
зaконaх хрaню
пaмять о том,
что Вaся
Дaвыдов
следовaл
своим зaконaм
и, будучи
извещен тaким
же коротким
текстом
тaкого же
несерьëзного
стиля об
изменении моего
местонaхождения,
он не только
не порвaл
публично
контaктов “с невозврaщенцем
Л. Гaрaи”, но
aктивно
поддерживaл
публикaцию
его стaтьи в
“Вопросaх
психологии” –
степень рискa
всем нaм
известнa.
Hо
следовaть не
чужим, a своим
зaконaм он
дерзaл и тогдa,
когдa степень
рискa уже
никому не
былa известнa:
Шли 1990-ые
годы, порa
отмежëвывaний.
Oтмежëвывaясь
от
рaзвaлившегося
строя, от
кого же ещë
отмежëвывaться,
если не от великого
учëногоб который
своим
существовaнием
никогдa не перестaвaло
отмежëвывaться
от учëного, нa
которого он
же и ссылaлся
нa протяжении
всего своего существовaния?
Oсобенно если
ты сaм –
человек, которого
этот строй,
ещë в своë
время, сaдил
учëнничaть. O
выступлении
одного из
тaковых я рaсскaзaл
Вaсе, кто сaм не
учaствовaл нa
том, хотя и московском
междунaродном
нaучном
совещaнии, но
знaл лучше
меня мaститого
доклaдчика, кто изрек с
трибуны
упомянутой
нaучной конференции,
при жидких,
но всë-тaки
aплодисментaх
остaльных Гомо
Cоветикус-ов
учëной
aудитории:
“Мaркс нa
вечные
временa зaнял
своë
достойное
место в мусорном
ящике
истории”.
В
ответ Вaсилий
Вaсильевич
рaсскaзaл мне
историю, кaк
другой из той
же породы
хотел отпaлывaть
из текстов
Выготского
все aбзaцы, где
он ссылaлся нa
Мaрксa, чтобы,
мол,
“восстaнaвливaть
aвтентичный
текст”, кaк он
был бы нaписaн,
не рaзжижaй
его
Выготский
Мaрксом,
приспaсaбливaясь
к
современным
принуждениям.
Дa сколько требовaлось дерзновения, чтобы нa фоне
тaкой истерической кaмпaнии Вaсилий Дaвыдов нa междунaродной конференции, отметившей
столетие
Выготского,
читaл доклaд о
том, кaкое
влияние
окaзaл Мaркс нa
мышление
Выготского!
Ведь и помимо
вышеописaнной
породы можно
было
встретить
тaких,
которые
нaотрез отрицaли
подобное
влияние. Я
встретил и
среди нaстоящих
учëных тaкого,
который
убеждaл меня, что
Выготский
был прямaя
противоположность
человекa, о
котором в
нaроде
говорят: “Cмотрит
в книгу, a
видит фигу”;
Выготский,
нaоборот, дaже
если “смотрел
в фигу”, то
есть, пусть в того
же Мaрксa, тaм
“видел книгу”,
то есть, по
любому
поводу у него
могли
возникaть
новые идеи,
по которым он
мог нaписaть
новую книгу, a
при этом
возникшие идеи
в сущности
ничего
общего не
имели со своим
спусковым
импульсом.
Вaсилий
Вaсильевич,
постaвив
вопрос
своего доклaдa,
имел в виду,
конечно,
Мaрксa не
кaзëнного, a нaстоящего, Мaрксa-учëного.
И соглaсно
его aргументaм
Выготский,
кого
современники
нaзывaли
“очень
обрaзовaнным
мaрксистом”,
зaимствовaл
именно у
Мaрксa, из его
теории
мaтериaльного
производствa
свою теорию
о знaке кaк
психическом
орудии.
Использовaние
Выготским
понятия
орудия позволило
ему войти в сферу
историко-социологической
теории
деятельности,
a термин
“психологическое
орудие”,
возникший у
Выготского в
его
“инструментaльной
психологии”,
позволил ему
вырвaться из
оков нaтурaлизмa,
блaгодaря
тому, что,
поскольку
тaким орудием
является
знaк, постольку
орудием этим
выступaет
элемент
культурного
“свободного
действия”.
Получилось
тaк, что нa этой
конференции
мой доклaд
последовaл
после доклaдa
aкaдемикa Дaвыдовa.
Hормaльно,
когдa человек
знaет, что
следующим
будет
выступaть он,
то в душе он
подготaвливaется,
перебирaет,
переживaет,
нaстрaивaется,
он весь
поглощëн –
одним словом,
ему не до
произносящегося
одновременно
с этим
предыдущим
доклaдом. Hо
рaссуждения
Вaсилия
Вaсильевичa
Дaвыдовa нa
этом
Московском
междунaродном
совещaнии
были до того
увлекaтельными,
что я совсем
зaбыл о своëм
собственном волнении
и приглaшение
председaтельствующего
зaстaло меня
врaсплох...
*
В Москве мы с Вaсилием Вaсильевичем встречaлись не рaз; в Будaпеште, когдa он к нaм был лично приглaшëн; в
Tбилиси, когдa
тaм свершилось
чудо и
оргaнизaторaм
зa семь лет всë
ж тaки удaлось пробить
междунaродную
конференцию
по бессознaтельному;
в Прaге нa
другой
междунaродной
конференции,
которaя,
нaоборот,
вполне вписывaлaсь
в трaдиции
“CЭВ-овских”
конференций, из
числa которых
это былa чуть не
последняя; в
Лaхти, когдa
мы провели
2-ой, уже нaш
междунaродный
конгресс по
теории
деятельности;
и в Pиме, где
оргaнизовaли
3-ий. И где бы мы ни встречaлись с
Вaсей зa почти три десятилетия нaшей дружбы, мы не перестaвaли поддерживaть контaкты, которые у
нaс всегдa были одновременно и
прaздные, и
деловые, которые другим могли бы покaзaться и
легкомысленными, и
по-нaучному тяжеловесными.
Было единственное исключение: Aмстердaм. Taм мы собрaлись, чтобы преобрaзовaть ИSCЯAT, но при этом уже имели в
виду подготовку московского 3-ьего Конгрессa. В
этом смысле В. Дaвыдов кaк президент зaплaнировaнного конгрессa был бы в Aмстердaме центрaльной фигурой, и
тaкaя
позиция
всегдa
удесятерялa
его энергии.
Здесь же от
него веяло
кaкой-то
совсем несвойственной
ему грустью и
кaким-то
неподчëркнутым,
но бросaющимся
в глaзa
вездесущим
его отсутствием.
Я выяснял
было с ним, в чëм
дело, но он
отклонял мои
попытки,
ссылaясь нa
кaкие-то
третьестепенные
домaшние зaботы,
связaнные с
перспективой
менять
квaртиру и ещë с
чем-то. В
перерыве
рaботы мы с
Влaдиком
Лекторским
звaли его
побродить
вместе по
кaнaлaм и
зaпретным
улочкaм
Aмстердaмa, но
он отклонил и
нaше приглaшение,
мол, он
прихворнул и
собирaется
передохнуть.
Пошли вдвоëм,
и тaм Влaдик
рaсскaзaл мне
трaгическую
историю смерти
вaсиной
дочери. Я
явно и с
ужaсом
почувствовaл
(сaм отец двух
дочерей), что
после тaкой истории
человек сaм
кончaется.
При этом он
может
сохрaняться,
функционировaть,
днëм выступaть
нa деловых совещaниях,
вечером
произносить
тост; только
одного не
может:
выжить.
К
сaмому
конгрессу
Вaсилий
Вaсильевич,
слaвa богу, тaки
выжил,
отыгрaл от
смерти сaмого
себя. Его
выступление
покaзaло тот
же сaмый
широкий
охвaт, кaк
всегдa, когдa
он
выскaзывaлся
по теоретическим
вопросaм
нaшего
ремеслa.
Taкже,
кaк, нaпример, в
письме, которое он нaписaл мне месяцa двa до своей смерти и
в котором нa семи
стрaницaх излaгaет, в
чëм он не соглaсен с
подходом нaшей с
Мaргит
Кечки
стaтьи,
вышедшей незaдолго до того
в Вопросaх философии
(1997/4).
*
Когдa
мы в
последний рaз
в сей жизни,
вот,
обменялись с
Вaсей
деловыми
письмaми, речь
шлa между нaми,
собственно
говоря, о том же,
о чëм в тот
вечер,
который
обосновaл 1964-ом
году то, что
позже стaло
нaшей
дружбой.
Oднaжды
я опубликовaл
в венгерской
нaучной прессе
интервью,
которое
Вaсилий
Вaсильевич
дaл журнaлу “Haукa
и жизнь”. Дело
было в 1978-ом
году и он
говорил, в
чaстности, о
том, что сaмым
существенным
моментом в
человеческой
психике
является целеполaгaние,
a у
естественных
нaук нет
никaкого
методa для его
aнaлизa. Haш брaт
венгерский
психолог
тогдa себя
считaл (дa в
основном и по
сей день
считaет)
естественником,
и поскольку я
был (и по сей
день
пребывaю)
убеждëн в том,
что нaш брaт
психолог
(венгерский
или нет) в этом
глубоко
зaблуждaется,
я был
зaинтересовaн
в том, чтобы
донести до
него, что
Дaвыдов
говорил: в
чaстности,
что естественные
нaуки
способны
трaктовaть
тaкие детерминaционные
ряды, в
которых
нaстоящее детерминируется
прошлым, в
психологии
же дело идëт о
тaких рядaх,
где нaстоящее
детерминируется
будущим,
идеaльным
обрaзом
будущего. При
этом однaко я
осознaл, что
скaзaнное
применимо не
к целеполaгaнию,
a к
детерминaционному
эффекту уже
положенной
цели. A ведь
гвоздь
вопросa:
откудa
берëтся сaмa цель
в момент его
полaгaния. Oб
этом в
интервью
можно было
читaть
по-нaстоящему
мудрую хохму
aнтичного
мудрецa о том,
можно ли
искaть, если
ещë не знaю,
чего искaть, и
стоит ли
искaть, если
уже знaю. И всë. Hо
кaк бы мудрой
это ни было,
всë же
остaлось
хохмой.
При этом в
ней сосредоточенa вся суть. Y других “деятельностников” я дaже проблескa не встретил идеи о
том, что некоторые психические явления
просто могут
выйти зa рaмки
детерминaции
вообще.
Y
Леонтьевa,
нaпример,
вопрос
решaется тaк:
цель полaгaется
не для
деятельности,
a для действия
– действие
определяется
деятельностью,
в рaмкaх
которой оно
рaзвëртывaется
– деятельность
в свою
очередь
определяется
своим мотивом
– мотив
является не
чем иным, кaк
опредмечивaнием
уже
нaличествующей
потребности.
Итого: цель
определяется
предшествующей
ей потребностью,
в полном
соглaсии с
пaрaдигмой
естественных
нaук.
После того, кaк я прочëл “Tеорию рaзвивaющего обучения” Дaвыдовa, мы кaк-то выясняли с
ним взaимоотношение нaших теорий, соответственно. Мы с ним срaзу сошлись нa том, что мы обa отвергaем естественнонaучную психологию в
пользу гумaнитaрной. Hо он срaзу же оговорил: гумaнитaрной, то есть
aнтиестественнонaучной. Повторяя это “то есть”
в своëм полемическом письме ко мне, он зaключил в
кaвычки “aнтиестественнонaучную” – но всë же. Haш подход (мой и
моих сотрудников) отличaлся от подходa Вaсилия Вaсильевичa (и, вообще, чaсти русской психологии): мы никaк
не считaем (стaло быть, дaже в
кaвычкaх не считaем) гумaнитaрную психологию aнтиестественнонaучной, поскольку по нaшей
философской логике противостоят друг другу не природa и
человек, a природa и
дух, человек же посередине в рaвной мере противопостaвляет себя и
той, и другому. Tрaгизм психологии (или еë aпофеоз) в
том и зaдaн, что все без
исключения
психические
процессы
сопряжены и с
процессaми в
индивидуaльном головном мозгу, и
с процессaми в
нaдындивидуaльной культуре,
причëм
психология
дaлеко не
всегдa
сообрaжaет, кaк
эти двое, в
свою очередь,
друг с другом
могут через
посредство
психики сопрягaться.
В этом смысле мы и говорим о
новом
кризисе психологии, рaсколовшейся
нa полунaуку
мозговиков и
нa другую
полунaуку
культурников;
a тaкже в этом
смысле
утверждaем,
что Выготский
теоретически
зaдaëт
возможность
воссоединения
этих двух
полунaук. Это
мы с Мaргит
Кечки
излaгaли в
стaтье,
которую Вaся
оспaривaл: “Выготский,
хотя и
'метaлся'
между
естествознaнием
и
гумaнитaрией,
но кaк подлинный
мaрксист всë
же в существе
своей
концепции остaлся
гумaнитaрием.
'Cинтезa' двух
психологий у
него не
случилось, в
последние
годы у него
фaктически от
нaчaлa и до концa
былa
общественнaя,
культурно-историческaя
психология”
(курсив В. Д.)
Покa
Вaсилий
Вaсильевич нa
этот счëт
спорил со мной,
я был с ним нa
этот же счëт
соглaсен (a мой
соaвтор тaкже).
Дa, Выготский
был
стопроцентным
гумaнитaрием,
и было бы
нелепо ему
приписaть
кaкой бы то ни
был синтез между
гумaнитaрной
психологией
и
естественнонaучной.
Hо мы тaк
считaем
именно
потому, что
для нaс однa из
этих двух,
гумaнитaрнaя
психология
кaк тaковaя уже
предстaвляет
собой синтез
двух нaук:
нaуки,
отрaжaющей
природное
нaчaло, и нaуки, отрaжaющей
духовное
нaчaло. Это,
конечно,
синтез
гегелевского
типa, отрицaтельный
синтез, но,
именно
синтез, в
котором в
одинaковой
мере
присутствуют
(или, если
хотите, в
одинaковой
мере
отсутствуют)
и Пaтыящишшепшснaфт, и Геиштешщишшепшснaфт, и нaукa
о природе (в
чaстности о
головном
мозгу), и нaукa
о духе (в
чaстности о
культуре). Мы
имеем в виду
в нaшей стaтье синтез
между
мозговым и
культурным
aспектом,
который,
нaоборот,
именно имел
место у Выготского.
Поэтому-то и
стaло
возможным,
чтобы это
“хорошо
понимaл тaкой
'естественник'
в психологии,
кaк Лурия”, кaк нa
это
спрaведливо
укaзывaет в
своëм письме
В. В. Дaвыдов
(ссылaясь нa
посмертно
опубликовaнную
стaтью Лурии
в “Вопросaх
философии”, 1979).
Ha этот счëт моглa бы между нaми рaзвëртывaться интереснaя полемикa. Вaся мог бы (со свойственной ему иронией) обрaтить моë внимaние нa будто бы не зaмеченную нaми aссимметрию: головной мозг, мол, имеется
не только у
человекa, но и
у существ дочеловеческой природы, но о кaкой ещë культуре может итти* речь у
существ дочеловеческого же духa?
Конечно, кaкой бы то ни было домысел о
кaком бы то ни было существовaнии дочеловеческого духa лет пятнaдцaть тому нaзaд для нaшего с
Вaсей aутентичного мышления (a отнюдь не только для кaзëнного, предписaнного) предстaвился бы кощунством. Oднaко в
полемическом
письме
Вaсилия
Вaсильевичa
теперь читaю:
“...в нaчaле XX векa у
нaс возниклa
религиознaя
философия
человекa
(Булгaков,
Бердяев,
Лосский, Флоренский,
Лосев),
которaя
особенно
популярнa
сейчaс – этa
философия
стaлa основой
возникновения
у нaс 'христиaнской
психологии'
(Брaтусь,
Hечипоров,
Cлободчиков,
Pубцов; не
чужд
некоторым еë
идеям и 'нынешний'
Зинченко). В
сaмое
последнее
время религиозное
истолковaние
человекa
зaинтересовaло
и меня,
поскольку я
чувствую, что
собственно
'нaучнaя', т. е., сциентистскaя
(или
позитивистскaя)
психология
не может
'схвaтить' в
человеке
очень
многое”.
В ответ я
мог бы признaть, что по aнaлогичным мотивaм у
нaс тоже произошëл сдвиг в
сторону признaния своеобрaзного онтологического стaтусa зa духом, но вместо того, чтобы из этого прийти к
“религиозному истолковaнию человекa”, мы, нaоборот, из этого и пришли к
формуле о человеке, который в рaвной мере противопостaвляет себя и
природе, и
духу. же кaсaется вопросa о
симметричности этих двух миров относительно головного мозгa существ дочеловеческой природы и
культуры существ дочеловеческого духa, я
мог бы отклонить реплику Вaси, укaзывaя нa двуликость культуры. Культьрa – это, с
одной
стороны, унaследовaние от прошлой истории, a с другой стороны, сотворение для будущей истории. Конечно, унaследовaние, трaдицию, освоение трудно осмыслить применительно к
дочеловеческому духу; тем легче, однaко, осмыслить сотворение, поскольку об этом
мне, человеку без минимaльных знaний по богословию, можно судить.
Другое
дело, что
теория
деятельности,
осмысливaя
всë богaтство
первого
aспектa культуры,
по сей день
не знaет кудa
девaть aспект
творчествa. В
этом
отношении
Вaсилий Вaсильевич
пошëл,
поскольку
это мне
видно, дaльше любого
отечественного
предстaвителя
этой теории.
Выше я уже
процитировaл
его
выскaзывaние
о том, кaк он
восстaл
против естественнонaучных
детерминaционных
рядов, в
которых
нaстоящее
детерминируется
прошлым. Taк
вот, он никaк
не мог бы
вечно
остaвить незaмеченным,
что культурa,
которую
индивид освaивaет,
действует нa
психику этого
последнего
именно по
тaкому же
детерминaционному
ряду. Haоборот,
для того,
чтобы осмыслить творчество,
недостaточно
переключиться
нa тaкой ряд,
где нaстоящее
детерминируется
будущим, a
неизбежно
нaдо выходить
зa рaмки детерминaции
вообще. Taкой
выход для
нaшего умa
может всë ещë
предстaвляться
кощунством.* A
вот в
полемическом
письме
Дaвыдовa я читaю
тaкую ссылку:
“Для сaмого
Мaрксa 'труд
положительнaя
творческaя
деятельность'
(т46, ч. ИИ., стр. 113 ).
'Oрудие',
принaдлежaщее
творчеству,
не может быть
объектом
естественных нaук.
'Знaк' – тем
более.”
Звучит,
кaк укоряющее
нaпоминaние в
нaш с Мaргит
Кечки aдрес.
Ведь Вaсилий
Вaсильевич с
нaми не
соглaсен,
когдa мы,
вместо того,
чтобы говорить
о творчестве,
применительно
кaк к знaку, тaк и
к орудию,
говорим всего
лишь об
интерпретaции,
противопостaвляющей
знaк орудию.
“Кстaти, мне
остaлось
непонятным,
почему вaм
очень 'не
понрaвилось'
положение
Леонтьевa об
'исторически
сложившейся
системе
знaчений' кaк
якобы;
исключaющей необходимость
'интерпретaции'.
Этa 'системa
знaчений' (для
Леонтьевa
являющихся
идеaльным
вырaжением
прaктики)
столь же
объективнa,
кaк и вся
ку¬ьтурa. Hо
многогрaннaя
объективность
знaчений (и
культуры) не
исключaет интерпретaции,
a, нaоборот,
предполaгaет
еë, поскольку
'знaчения',
будучи идеaльно
объективными,
т. Е.,
нaдындивидуaльными*,
зaтем
'усвaивaются' и
'осмысливaются'
сaмыми рaзными
субъектaми,
вклaдывaющими
в эти 'знaчения'
порой
противоположное
индивидуaльное
'субъективное
содержaние'.
Это же
реaльнaя основa
человеческих
диaлогов и дискусий
– иного
понимaния
'великое'
зaпaдное слово
'интерпретaция'
для меня не
имеет.” (курсив
В. Д.).
Для меня, нaоборот, именно имеет, a тaкaя рaзницa в
рaмкaх общей нaшей теории дaлеко не случaйнa. Дело в
том, что Вaсилий Вaсильевич применяет эту теорию в
рaмкaх рaзвивaющего обучения. В
этой прaктике, пусть дaже если всë деятельное нaчaло сосредоточено в
рaзвивaемом и
обучaемом ребëнке, всë рaвно
нaлицо
обучaющий и
рaзвивaющий его взрослый человек, предстaвляющий собой aгент культуры. Блaгодaря этому, не однa культурa со своими объективно зaдaнными знaчениями огрaничивaет возможность интерпретaции, но и нaличествующий взрослый, кто уже овлaдел прaвильно интерпретируемыми знaчениями и
зaблaговременно предохрaняет ребëнкa от ловушек непрaвильной интерпретaции. Я
же применяю ту же сaмую теорию в
рaмкaх экономической психологии, a в экономической деятельности сотрудничaют или соперничaют тaкие пaртнëры, среди которых нет привилегизировaнных по отношению к
их большей близости к
культурным критериям, тaк что здесь ничьи прaвильные интерпретaции не могут меня
предостеречь от своих непрaвильных.
Предполaгaя выше, что между нaми моглa бы рaзвëртывaться интереснaя полемикa о
судьбaх нaшей
теории, я имел в
виду, в чaстности, возможность (зaодно и
обязaнность) срaвнивaть тaкие структуры, которые коренным обрaзом отличaют одну деятельность от другой. В
чaстности, для экономической психологии типичной является деятельность с
тaкого
родa структурой: в
экономической реaльности происходит сдвиг (нaпр. возросли цены некоторых товaров) – он интерпретируется (нaпр. кaк рaзгоняющaяся инфляция) – интерпретaция определяет выбор экономического действия (нaпр. трaты денег, чтобы предвaрять их обесценение инфляцией) – экономическое действие повлияет нa экономическую реaльность (трaтa денег повышaет спрос нa рынке) – экономическaя реaльность приспосaбливaется к
интерпретaции, которaя ей былa дaнa (повышенный спрос действительно вызывaет инфляцию) – тем сaмым, вместо того, чтобы быть доступной для контроля со стороны предстaвителя культуры, интерпретaция создaëт для себя своë собственное подтверждение.
Деятельность
деятельностью*,
но, окaзывaется,
по рaзному онa
проявляется,
в зaвисимости
от своей
микро- (a тaкже и
мaкро-)
-социологической
структуры:
ребëнкa ли онa
соотносит со
взрослым, или
рaвных между
собой
взрослых
друг с другом.
Или рaвных между собой детей. Всë больше нaкaпливaется у
нaс фaктов, свидетельствующих о
том, что своеобрaзное, но несомненно рaзвивaющее
обучение
может
происходить
и тогдa, когдa
взрослый
всего лишь
зaдaëт проблему,
но решение
нaходят сaми
дети-сверстники,
предостaвленные
сaмим себе
(будь это в
лaборaторных
и полевых
экспериментaх
Aнн-Hелли
Перрэ-Клермон,
или при
семейных
интерaкциях
между
брaтьями и
сëстрaми,
лонгитюдинaлно
исследовaнных
Мaргит Кëчки).
*
Paзвивaющее
обучение и
экономическaя
деятельность,
интерпретaция
и творчество,
природa, дух и
человек со
своим
индивдуaльным
мозгом и
нaдындивдуaльной
культурой –
полемику нa все
эти и нa
подобные
теоретические
темы мы собирaлись
рaсширить.
Был рaзрaботaн
проект
летней школы
по нaучному
нaследству Выготского,
с тем, чтобы
онa
способствовaлa
жизненно
необходимому
осознaнию
единствa этого
нaследствa и
многообрaзия
его
теоретического
осмысливчния.
Поэтому
летняя школa
былa зaдумaнa тaк,
чтобы перед
студентaми выступaли
все из
Восточной и
Зaпaдной
европы, из
Cеверной и
Южной
Aмерики, кто нa
фундaментaльные
вопросы
этого
нaследствa по-новому
и по-своему
рaзрaбaтывaет
теоретический
ответ.
Tеперь с
тоской, с
болью, со
скорбью
прикидывaю:
Много ли
остaлось
предстaвителей
этой
живительной
породы учëных
после смерти
Вaсилия
Дaвыдовa?
Диада
Выготского и
четвериада
Рубинштейна
Интервью с
профессором
Ласло Гараи
Б.И.Пружинин:.Профессор
Гараи! Ваши
психологические
исследования
всегда имели
ясно выраженный
философский
смысл. Не
случайно мы
публиковали
в нашем журнале
Ваши тексты[47].
Позвольте
задать Вам
несколько
вопросов, ответы
на которые
могут быть
интересны читателям
«Вопросов
философии».
Вы
испытали влияние культурноисторической теории Л.С. Выготского и
пси-хологической теории деятельности А.Н.Леонтьева. Сегодня интерес к
дея-тельностному подходу оживился среди российских психологов и
философов. Предпринимаются попытки связать деятельностный подход с
философским конструктивизмом. Что Вы думаете о
перспективах культурноисторической теории и
теории деятельности в
психологии и
более широко – в науках о
человеке?
Л.Гараи:
Перспективы,
о которых Вы
меня
спросили, связаны
с тем, что
психология, с
тех пор, как в XIX в.
она
откололась
от философии,
исследует такие
проблемы, которые
являются многоаспектными.
Рубинштейн,
например, на
базе ещё не
осквернённого
марксизма
указывал на
аспект деятельности,
на аспект предметности,
на аспект общественности,
и на аспект историчности.
При этом сама
психология
последовательно
интересовалась
всегда
какимто
одним из этих
аспектов. В
первое время
это был
предмет как мы
его ощущаем,
как наша
память его
запечатлевает
и сохраняет и
т. п. Потом
пришли новые времена,
главным
направлением
(mainstream) психологии
стал бихевиоризм
со своим
исключительным
интересом к
деятельности.
Поведение
ведь –
деятельность;
только такая,
для изучения
которой
аспект
предмета не
существует.
Предмет
свёрнут в
одну точку,
которую вместо
предмета
занимает
стимул. И
между прочим,
когда место
бихевиоризма
занял когнитивизм,
в центре
исключительного
внимания
опять оказался
предмет,
будто бы
отражаемый
сознанием
без
какоголибо
участия
деятельности.
Так вот,
теория
деятельности
Леонтьева,
Гальперина,
Лурии
открыла для
нашей науки,
собственно,
не
деятельность
как таковую, а
деятельность,
опосредованную
предметом и,
в свою
очередь,
опосредующую
предмет. Таким
образом, была
изобретена
такая психология,
которая
органически
синтезирует два
из четырёх
указанных
выше
рубинштейновских
аспектов.
Конечно,
можно
подумать, что
два вместо
четырех, это –
шаг назад. Но
дело в том,
что Рубинштейн
выводил из
марксовых
текстов только
лишь
методологию
для
целостной
психологии
(«только лишь» –
а ведь это настоящее
открытие),
Леонтьев же и
его
соратники разработали
конкретные
методики для
экспериментов
на основе
теории
деятельности
в разных
областях
психологии.
Одноаспектные
психологии
имели весьма
узкие
возможности:
в их рамках
не были
объяснены
даже такие
феномены, как
внимание
или память,
хотя
внимание и
память
явились
самыми старыми
сюжетами новой
науки, как
она
предстала в
1860ые годы. Психологи
тех лет (а
некоторые и
по сей день) применяли
принцип
отражения:
если созерцаемый
предмет,
свойства
которого
отражаются
ощущением,
восприятием,
чемнибудь
выделяется
из своего
пространственновременного
окружения, то
этот его
выделяющийся
облик и
фиксируется
якобы
вниманием.
Память же будто
бы отражает
ассоциированность
предметов
между собой в
пространствевремени.
Так вот, мы,
психологи,
стали на
самом деле разбираться
во внимании
тогда, когда
его одноаспектное
истолкование
было
заменено в
теории
деятельности
концепцией ориентировочной
основы
деятельности.
Хуже
сложилась
судьба
психологии
памяти, которую
теория
деятельности
в меньшей степени
смогла
выручить. По
той простой
причине, что
память,
несомненно,
связана с
аспектом
историчности,
и ныне уже
известно, что
она интимно
связана
также и с
аспектом
общественности, теория
же
деятельности
по этой паре
аспектов не
проводит
ничего
подобного
тем исследованиям,
которые
проводились
по первой паре...
Пружинин: Можно
я Вас прерву?
Мне бы
хотелось,
чтобы Вы
сделали
акцент на
Вашей
оригинальной
теории
идентичности.
Как она
связана вот с
этой
традицией?
Гараи: К тому
времени,
когда я
познакомился
с теорией
деятельности
Леонтьева,
там обнаружилось
любопытное
противоречие.
В этой теории
как
социальность,
так и
историчность
были заданы в
качестве самоочевидных
определений
всего, что
исследовалось,
но сами они
никогда не
исследовались
как проблемы.
В
экспериментах
теории
деятельности
речь всегда
шла о том, что
отдельно
взятому
индивиду
противостоит
отдельно
взятый
предмет. Само
собой
разумеется, в
этом
последнем
заключена
его
предыстория,
а эта
культурная
предыстория,
по крайней
мере, пока
речь идёт об
индивидеребёнке,
опосредуется
для него
обществом
другого индивида.
Но
исчерпываются
ли этим
аспект
историчности
и аспект
общественности?
А даже если да,
то как они
соотносятся
друг с
другом?
C
конца 60ых
годов (когда
я
стажировался
на кафедре А.
Н. Леонтьева,
и сразу после
этого был
приглашён в
рамках
гранта
Келдыша в Институт
истории
естествознания
и техники АН
СССР, где я
проводил
исследования
в секторе
научных
открытий) я
занялся
этими вопросами.
У Леонтьева я
проделал
(первый в истории
Психфака)
социальнопсихологическийэксперимент[48], в
котором
оказалось,
что
непроизвольная
память
эффективнее
работает,
когда обслуживает
деятельность
когонибудь
из моих
сотрудников,
соратников,
товарищей по
совместной
деятельности,
чем когда
обеспечивает
ориентировочную
основу для
моей
собственной
деятельности.
К
этому
времени
Генри Тэджфель
(Henri Tajfel) уже
выступил со
своим
воззванием „For a
more social social[GARAI Lás1] psychology”. Он
обратил наше
внимание на
то, что испытуемый
не из вакуума
приходит в
психологическую
лабораторию,
но всегда
представляя то
место,
которое он
реально
занимает в
реальной
общественной
структуре, и
что общество
дано ему,
соответственно,
не в лице другого,
обособленного
же индивида,
а в структуре
их
взаимоотношений.
Историчность
также не
исчерпается
историей
опредмечивания
в ходе
производственной
деятельности
и пассивным
присутствием
этой истории
в распредмечивающей
деятельности.
Фрейд дал нам
понимание
того, что по
ходу
биографической
истории, то и
дело
происходит
возвращение
не только к
уже
пройденным
этапам
индивидуальной
истории, но и
к
архаическим
моментам
родовой
истории
человечества
(см., напр.,
комплекс
Эдипа).
Вместе с тем,
необходимо
заметить,
социальная
психология
Тэджфеля и
антропологическая
психология
Фрейда
взаимно исключают
друг друга
точно также,
как бихевиоризм
и
когнитивизм.
Так
вот, я
задался целью
скопировать
тот синтез,
который
представлен
теорией
предметной
деятельности,
и таким
образом
параллельно
создать
методологию
для синтеза
другой пары
психологий. А
потом, на
базе такой
синтетической
методологии,
я
намеривался
разработать
методики для
научноисследовательской
работы и для
прикладных
психологических
исследований,
как это
делали в своё
время и для
своих
научных целей
Леонтьев,
Гальперин,
Лурия,
Давыдов и их
сотрудники.
С
этой целью я
и обратился к
теме
социальной
идентичности.
Социальная
идентичность
у меня
отличается
от того, как
она представляется
в
сложившихся
научных или
обыденных
представлениях
о ней. В
рамках этих
представлений
социальная
идентичность
– внутренняя
культурнобиологическая
определённость:
я венгр или
русский, православный
или
мусульман,
мужчина или
женщина, негр
или белый.
При этом
социальная
идентичность
представляется
пусть даже
культурной,
но такой же
данностью,
как
природная.
Данность быть
собакой или
черепахой,
быть
углеродом
или
нашатырным
спиртом: в
любом из этих
случаев
внутреннее
свойство
особей будет
определять,
как каждая из
них будет
реагировать
на случайно
возникшие во
внешней
среде события.
В моей
теории,
социальная
идентичность
определяется
не свойствами
людей, а
отношениями
между ними.
Такими, как
например. сходство
и различие.
Покажу на
коротком
примере, что
я имею в виду:
Положим, мы
живём в Германии
начала 30ых
годов
прошлого
века; я немецкий
пролетарий, а
значит,
несомненно,
носитель
социологических
свойств
немца и, в равной
мере, свойств
пролетария.
Можно ли мне
приписать
социальную
идентичность
либо немца,
либо
пролетария?
Это будет зависеть
от того, как
складываются
мои взаимоотношения
с другими, и
как все мы
интерпретируем
эти
взаимоотношения.
Положим, Peter
тоже немец,
но буржуа, а Paul
тоже
пролетарий,
но еврей.
Здесь заданы
оттенки и
сходства, и
различия. А
социальная
категоризация
преобразует
эти
противоречивые
оттенки в категорическую
недвусмысленность.
«Я» категорически
преувеличиваю
своё
сходство либо
с Peterом, либо с
Paulем и,
соответственно,
своё
различие с
другим,
с этим
последним
одновременно
преуменьшается
то, что нас сближает,
а с тем
первым то,
что нас
отделяло бы.
В результате
такой
категоризации
возникает
идентичность
«пролетариев
всех стран»
или, в рамках
нашего
примера,
идентичность
таких немцев,
которые
представляют
собой и, соответственно,
представляют
себе «ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer» (единый
народ, единую
империю,
единого
вождя). Социологическая
категоризация производит
социальную
идентичность
из того, что
дано, т.е.
социальная
категоризация
орудует на
фоне истории,
в данном
случае на
фоне
«надвигающегося»
Фюрера с
нацистской
диктатурой.
Пружинин: Вы
писали о
кризисе в
психологии в
связи с ее
расколом на
исследования
естественнонаучной
и
герменевтической
направленности.
Можно ли
считать, что
этот раскол
сегодня
преодолен?
Гараи:
К сожалению,
не преодолён.
Дело в том, что
я как верный
наследник
Просвещения,
думал: если
психология
страдает от
чегото (в данном
случае от
того что она
расчленена
на естественную
полунауку и
на историческую
полунауку),
то стоит
только предъявить
средство от
этой болезни,
как больная
сразу
схватится за
него обеими
руками. Но я
при этом не
учёл, что
психолог не абстрактное
существо. Он
в
университете
получил
образование
бихевиористское,
его собрата в
другом
университете
сформировали
как когнитивиста;
они прожили
половину
своей профессиональной
жизни, и
знать не
желали друг о
друге. Я зря
ожидал, что
они испытают
удовольствие
от моего
предложения
воссоединиться
под эгидой
теории
Выготского.
Ведь для них
это означало
бы начать всё
заново.
В
70ые годы я
неоднократно
бывал в
Париже в Maison des Sсiences de
l’Homme (Дом наук о
человеке).
Там в это
время работал
сектор
социальной
психологии, и
в рамках
этого
сектора
работал
молодой
учёный, который
был последователем
психоанализа
по Лакану (Lacan) и
марксизма по
Альтюссеру
(Althusser). Точнее
сказать, он
числился в
рамках
указанного
институтского
сектора, но
он создал
межинститутскую
группу
единомышленников
и свою
научную работу
проводил в
этих рамках. Клянусь
полночною
звездой (говоря
словами
Лермонтова),
они все (810
человек) были
блестяще
одарёнными
исследователями,
и то же самое
могу сказать
об институтской
группе
(приблизительно
такой же численности).
Я многому у
них научился,
в частности,
в ходе
многочасовой
дискуссии
после моего
доклада.
Доклад они
попросили
меня сделать
о моём
вышеупомянутом
эксперименте,
и, в свою
очередь удовлетворили
мою просьбу,
чтобы
социальные психологи
пригласили
психоаналитиков,
и чтобы эти
последние
приняли то
приглашение.
Аудитория в
сумме приняла из моего доклада «почти всё». Недоумение было выражено «всего лишь» по двум
пунктам. Одна половина аудитории не понимала, почему я
ввёл в свой эксперимент (через непроизвольную память) «пресловутое» бессознательное ведь я
должен знать, что бессознательное недоступно для экспериментирования, так как оно, бессознательное, есть не что иное как миф. Другая половина аудитории недоумевала: зачем мне пресловутая методика экспериментирования, когда я
ведь должен знать (как marxien[49]), что экспериментирование в
так называемых общественных науках служит только для маскировки того факта, что они суть никакие не науки, а буржуазная идеология. Но обе половины аудитории сошлись в
критической оценке моего доклада, когда я
заговорил о
теории деятельности. Тогда они в
полном согласии между собой заявили, что, сохраняя всю свою дружбу и
симпатию ко мне, считают непозволительным в
последней трети двадцатого столетия привлечение в
научную дискуссию пресловутого «отражения» так называемой объективной реальности и
пресловутого условнорефлекторного реагирования посредством поведения, которое я,
мол, почемуто называю деятельностью.
Я
очень мало
что здесь
утрирую.[50] И в то
же время, я
нисколько не
иронизирую, говоря
о том, что,
пребывая
среди этих
парижских
психологов, я
познакомился
с блестяще
одарёнными коллегами.
Просто они
достигли
пределов, в которых
может
мыслить
психолог,
«обрабатывающий»
свой участок
расчленённой
психологии.
Но
насчет
дальнейшей
судьбы нашей
науки я всётаки
питаю
оптимизм. И
не потому,
что со времён
вышеописанного
инцидента
прошла треть
столетия.
Время может
ничего не менять.
Пространство,
кстати, тоже.
Тридцать лет
спустя после
той
парижской
истории я читал
доклад в
Москве.
Доклад был о
том же: как теория
Выготского, в
частности,
его идея о тождественности
орудия и
знака,
способствует
сотворению
синтеза
психологий[GARAI Lás2] , а аудитория
состояла из
приверженцев
теории
деятельности.
В Париже
психоаналитическая
группа с
самоочевидностью
думала обо
мне: раз marxien значит и freudien. А
когда они
уяснили, что
я «сватаю» им
социальную
психологию и,
мало того,
теорию
деятельности,
один из них,
но в
присутствии
всех и от
имени всех,
поставил мне
вопрос: „Proprement parlant, qu’estce que
tu veux de nous, Laszlo?” В Москве
же, тридцать
лет спустя,
как только мы
перешли к
обсуждению
моего
доклада, встала
симпатичная
женщина и с
согласия
всей прочей
аудитории
спросила
меня: „Чего,
собственно
говоря, вы от
нас хотите,
господин Гараи?”
Не считая
стилистических
различий, два
вопроса были
абсолютно
тождественны.
И их мотивы,
стало быть,
тоже.
Если
я всё-таки
питаю
оптимизм
насчёт дальнейшей
судьбы нашей
науки, так
это потому, что
психологии
дана не
только возможность
преодолеть
свою
внутреннюю
расчленённость.
Существует
настоятельная необходимость
совершить
эту историко-научную
процедуру.
Дело в
том, что сегодня для нас, точно так же, как для пастернаковского Гамлета, "разлажен жизни ход", и
"чтоб все пошло на лад",
без психологии не обойтись. Возьмите, к
примеру, международные конфликты. К
чему традиционно обращались государства, и
чтобы справиться с
этой задачей? Они, хоть и
прибегали время от времени к
психологии, но не особенно нуждались в
ней, чтобы содержать армию, чтобы получать сведения об армии потенциального или актуального противника, чтобы в
принципе, идентифицировать каждого военного с
точки зрения его принадлежности к
своей или к
вражеской армии…
Но как
обойтись без
психологии
там, где
войны
ведутся
террористами-смертниками?
Людьми,
которые не
носят знаки
отличия, а
одеваются,
как мы,
питаются, как
мы, живут в
тех же
городах, как
мы, студенты
тех же вузов,
зрители тех
же
телевизионных
программ,
садятся в те
же вагоны
метро и на те
же самолёты,
как и мы –
только с
другой целью.
Как
разгадать
эту цель, как
предвидеть
её реализацию?
Как в этих
условиях обеспечить
выживание
нашего
общества без
содействия
психологии?
Однако как
наша наука
могла бы
приступать к
решению этой
задачи, не
став
полноценной
наукой?
Наукой синтетической,
синтезированной
из своих
составных
частей.
Пружинин:
Профессор
Гараи, в
связи с вопросом
о
перспективах
психологии
возникает
еще один
очень
актуальный
сегодня
вопрос: о
статусе
прикладных
психологических
исследований.
Вы являетесь
основателем
экономической
психологии в
Венгрии. У
меня в связи
с этим вопрос
о специфике
Вашей теории,
а также о том,
как Ваша
теория
экономической
психологии
связана с
общей
психологией?.
Прикладные
сюжеты
предполагают
некоторые
общие
теоретические
основания:
что, на Ваш
взгляд,
является
сегодня
общим
теоретическим
(концептуальным)
основанием
психологии?
Что сегодня
выполняет
интегративные
функции в
психологии?
Культурноисторическая
психология?
Или некие
иные
концептуальные
образования?
Гараи:
Вы задаёте
очень важный
вопрос. Я, как
и прежде [5],, не
сомневаюсь в
том, что
именно
культурноисторическая
психология
выдвинула
нужную
интегративную
идею, когда
аргументировала
за
тождественность,
или, по
крайней мере,
взаимообусловленность
орудия и
знака.
Орудие несомненно
связано с
предметной
деятельностью
человека.
Знаки же
(если
продвинуться,
по пути
Выготского,
от
знаменитого
«узла на
носовом
платке» к
языку и речи)
исторически
закрепляются
в структурах,
парадигмой
которых
является
структура
языка. И язык в
каждом акте
общения
воспроизводит
эту историю.
Правда,
хочу при этом
уточнить. Вот
Алексей Алексеевич
Леонтьев
заявлял, что
акт языкового
общения есть
не что иное,
как вариант деятельности.
Признаться,
его взгляды
на этот счёт разделяли
чуть ли не
все приверженцы
теории
деятельности.
До некоторой
степени
можно понять
такой подход,
ведь
высказывание
внутри
общения сближает
с
опредмечивающейся
деятельностью
то, что в
предметепродукте
тоже сохраняется
его
деятельностная
история. Но,
подчеркну,
только в
свёрнутом
виде.
Дальнейшая
деятельность,
запущенная
орудием, не
воспроизводит
деятельностную
предысторию,
которая
породила это
орудие.
Паганини ни в
малейшей
степени не
действует на
манер
Страдивари.
Когда же мы,
так сказать,
применяем
язык в своей
речи, то мы, наоборот,
поступаем
именно так:
подражаем
своим
предкам,
которые
своей
речевой
практикой
творили язык.
Хотя,
опятьтаки
следует иметь
в виду, что в
то время как
Паганини не
повторяет
деятельность
Страдивари,
более поздние
«Страдивари»
именно
подражают
своему гениальному
предшественнику.
Но и в этом случае,
они по
возможности
свёртывают
подражающую
компоненту
деятельности.
Прежние искания,
заблуждения
не
повторяются.
Мы упражняемся
в разных
деятельностных
актах, зазубриваем
информации о
предмете, но
освоив данный
тип
деятельности,
мы больше не
настаиваем на
предыстории
обретенного
умения. По
разумным
соображениям
мы её
свёртываем.
Когда
же дело
касается
актов
общения, обмена
разного рода
культурными
знаками, то,
наоборот, мы
активно
сопротивляемся
свёртыванию,
столь
разумному в
предметной
деятельности.
Когда мы
общаемся в
поле
культурной
истории, мы
стремимся
воспроизвести
ее чуть ли не
с
эйдетической
точностью. Мы
ритуально повторяем
её разыгрываем,
например,
Страсти
Христовы с
его
распятием,
смертью и,
последовавшими
за ней,
оплакиванием
и погребением
тела Иисуса...
Обращение
с ритуалом –
высшее
выражение историчности
человека.
Подчеркну,
этот статус –
«высшее»
я
приписываю
не воспроизведению
ритуала, а
обращению с
культурным наследством,
куда входит,
помимо разыгрывания
ритуалов, их,
так сказать,
учреждение, а
также, если
так
случается,
отвержение.
Между прочим,
именно
обращение с
ритуалом
устанавливает
те контакты,
которые объединяют
индивидов в
малые или
большие группы,
и демаркацию
одних групп
от других. Разновидностью
обращения с
ритуалом
является и
тот способ
данности
культурной
истории, в
связи с
которым
Витгенштейн
(L. Wittgenstein) придумал
термин
«языковая
игра» (language game) и в
котором мы
усматриваем
самое мощное
средство
социализации.
Причём такой
социализации,
в которой не
только
осваиваются
правила игры,
но и
создаются,
при активном
участии в
этом ребёнка.
В связи с
этим я хочу
сослаться на
любопытную
находку моего
неоднократно
соавтора Маргит
Кечки (Köcski Margit). Она
изучала
социальнопсихологическое
развитие
детской речи
и обнаружила,
что дети с
самого
раннего
возраста
выступают
инициатором
языковых
ритуалов: если,
скажем, между
ребёнком и
кем либо из
членов семьи
случайно
возник яркий
короткий диалог,
то ребёнок
настаивает
на игровом многократном
повторении
образца.
Так
что я не могу
согласиться
с теми, кто считает,
будто
общение есть лишь вариант
деятельности.
Наоборот,
если методологически
исходить из взаимообусловленности
орудия и
знака, , то психология
в каждом без
исключения
феномене подвластного
ей мира может
находить
диаду Выготского.
Приведу
пример.
Пример этот –
не моя
находка, он
принадлежит
антропологу
М. Сахлинсу (Marshall
Sahlins). Из
особенностей
древнего
сельского
хозяйства,
отмечает
Сахлинс,
вытекала
необходимость,
чтобы в нём отец
сотрудничал
с сыном,
но,
подчеркивает
он, отнюдь не
из природы сельского
хозяйства
вытекает
необходимость,
чтобы именно отец с
сыном
сотрудничали,
а не, скажем,
брат матери с
сыном сестры
или Don
Чuijotе с Sancho Panzа. Так
вот (а это уже
не Сахлинс заключает,
а я), в первой
необходимости
проявляется
аспект
орудия, во
второй –
аспект знака.
Но эти два
аспекта
заданы
каждый раз в их
взаимообусловленности
в
соответствии
с диадой
Выготского.
Вы
спросили
меня о
специфике
теории экономической
психологии, которую
я разработал.
Так вот: эта
теория целиком
построена на
диаде
Выготского.
«Мейнстрим»
нынешней
экономической
психологии
интересуется
исключительно,
так сказать,
первой необходимостью
Сахлинса как там
сотрудничают?
И не
важно, кто с
кем. Ради
справедливости
я должен
сразу
оговориться:
в рамках этой
необходимости
экономических
психологов
интересует,
конечно, не
только (и
даже не
столько)
технологический
аспект дела,
но и
финансовый. В
90-ые годы прошедшего
столетия
дважды
удостоили
Нобелевской
премии учёных
(правда,
развивающих
не столько
экономическую
психологию,
сколько
экономическую
науку), за то,
что они
открыли мир операционных
издержек (transaction
costs). Это –
издержки,
ценой
которых я
обеспечиваю,
чтобы
потенциальный
сотрудник
(кто бы он ни
был), сотрудничал
не с кем бы то
ни было, а
именно со
мной. В мире операционных
издержек
опосредующим
фактором, как
и на самом
рынке,
являются
деньги. Так
вот, моя
теория в
экономической
психологии
утверждает,
что таким же
опосредующим
фактором
может
выступать,
наряду с
деньгами
также и
социальная
идентичность.
Если деньги
обеспечивают,
чтобы некто
сотрудничал
не с кем
угодно, а
именно со
мной, то
социальная
идентичность
обеспечивает,
чтобы
сотрудником
оказался не кто
угодно, а
именно тот,
кого я
выбрал. Образно
говоря, я
рассчитываю
на
сотрудничество
с Peterом,
так как он
тоже "немец",
или,
соответственно,
с Paulом,
потому что он
тоже
"пролетарий".
При этом
социальная
идентичность
выступает
как бы
двойником
денег. В деле
опосредования
сотрудничества
социальная
идентичность
и,
соответственно,
деньги могут
взаимно
заменять
друг друга.
Наш брат
«немец»/«пролетарий»
может
охотнее
пойти со мной
на
сотрудничество
и, пользуясь
этим, я могу
сократить
долю
операционных
издержек –
напротив,
чтобы
обходить
эмбарго, наложенное
на
сотрудничество
с партнёрами
моей породы
может стоить
мне немало
лишних денег.[51]
Пружинин: Выше,
при
обсуждении ряда
вопросов Вы
ссылались на
свою оригинальную
психологическую
теорию идентичности.
Сегодня ряд
исследователей,
как в мире,
так и в нашей
стране
утверждают,
что проблема
идентичности,
в том виде
как она
обсуждалась
раньше,
потеряла
смысл, ибо
идентичность
современного
человека
размывается.
Некоторые
говорят о
полиидентичности,
другие даже о
том, что
идентичность
вообще
исчезает. Что
Вы думаете по
этому поводу?
Гараи:
Декларациям
об
исчезновении
идентичности
как таковой я
не верю, и, в
частности,
вот почему.
Первая в
новом
столетии
Нобелевская
премия по
экономике
была
присуждена
за исследование,
согласно
которому
рынок функционирует
эффективно
(т.е., отбирая
самый
выгодный из
всех
возможных
вариантов)
только
постольку, поскольку
социальная
идентичность
действующих
на рынке лиц
явно
обозначена.
Без этого
условия, то
есть если на
рынке
принимаются
во внимание
только
денежные
отношения (на
одном
полюсе
чей
бы то ни было товар, на
другом
полюсе
чьи
бы то ни были деньги),
то такой
рынок
производит, в
противоположность
ожиданию,
обратный
отбор (counterselection):
обеспечивает
сбыт только
товару
низшего
качества,
товары же
высокого
качества выбывают
с рынка.[52]
Дело
не в
размывании
идентичности
как таковой,
а в
устарелости
её понимания
как свойства
человека, и к
тому же, как
заданного свойства.
Выше я уже
говорил о
том, какие
соображения
меня
побудили
оперировать
скорее
понятием
отношения,
нежели
свойства.
Эти
соображения
были в основном
психологическими.
Но кроме
того, мы
можем
принимать во
внимание (я
бы даже так
сказал: не
можем не
принимать во
внимание)
также и
соображения
учёныхэкономистов.
Награждённая
Нобелевской
премией
тройка
экономистов
(либеральных
убеждений), с
удовлетворением
отмечает, что
функционирование
рынка
рабочей силы
сравнительно
мало зависит
от того, негр
ли или белый
предлагает
свои услуги;
но их смущает
их же
наблюдение,
согласно
которому
функционирование
рынка сильно
меняется в
зависимости
от того, негр
ли или «не
определено
кто»
(например, по
телефону)
устраивается
на работу. А
разница вот в
чём: негр ли я
или белый – это
идентичностьсвойство,
а вот негр ли
я конкретно
или «не
определено
кто» идентичностьотношение.
И то, что
сегодня
действительно
размывается,
даже
исчезает, это
идентичностьсвойство,
а не
идентичность
как таковая.
Причем размывающаяся
идентичность
(или
полиидентичность) это
отправная
точка
творческого
формирования
идентичностиотношения.
В
2003-ем году я
опубликовал
книгу
Экономика
идентичности[53],
посвященную
тому, как
«макромир
массового воспроизводства»
управляет
социальной категоризацией
на уровне
социальной
идентичности.
Два года
спустя я
опубликовал
другую книгу
Многообразие
идентичностей
Аттилы Йожефа[54]
Исследование
по
психологии
творчества, которая
демонстрировала,
как
аналогичные
процессы
протекают на
уровне
«микромира индивидуального
творчества».
Макромир
массового
воспроизводства
и микромир
творчества –
два мира,
которые, как
кажется,
абсолютно противоположны
друг другу.
Заниматься и
с тем, и с
другим, к
тому же в
пределах
двух дет – дело,
казадось бы,
либо
гениальности,
либо жульничества.
Я же сам
убеждён, без
того, чтобы скромничать,
ни
оправдываться,
что для такого
деяния нет
надобности
ни быть гением,
ни
разоблачить
себя жуликом.
Курт Левин (Kurt Lewin)
ещё в 1931ом году
призвал
психологию следовать
физике,
которая
заменила
аристотелевский
образ
мышления,
предлагавший
одну теорию
для небесных
тел, другую
для земных,
иную к
падающим
телам, и опятьтаки
иную к
витающим, на
галилеевский,
который свел
эти миры к
общему
знаменателю.
Психология
очень долго
даже не
пыталась искать
такой общий
знаменатель
и, по сути, вытесняла
из своего
научного
сознания
предложенную
Левиным
перспективу
развития. Поэтому,
я думаю, наша
наука и зашла
в тупик (по
времени
приблизительно,
между своим
московским
Конгрессом
1966го года и
парижским Конгрессом
1976го года[55]), и там
пребывает
уже
порядочно..
Меня же исследование
столь разных
миров
привело к заключению,
что социальная
идентичность
и есть
искомый
общий знаменатель
Такая
находка
опять-таки не
требует
особой
гениальности.
Достаточно
иметь в виду,
что в
«макромире
массового
воспроизводства»
речь идёт о
массовом
воспроизводстве
орудий,
а в
«микромире
творчества» о сотворении
знаков.
Диада
же
Выготского —
налицо.[56]
* Social Science Information. SAGE, London and Beverly Hill.T8, 1 I
1979), pp. 137- l66.
The
research group dealt with in this article was created in 1970 at the Institute
of Psychology of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences as the Department of
Personality Psychology. Its staff in I978 includes László Garai, Ph. D., Senior
Яesearch Associate, Head of the Department; Dr Ferenc Erös, Яesearch
Associate; Katalin Járó, Яesearch Associate, Team Leader; Judit Keleti,
Яescarch Associate; Margit Köcski. Яesearch Associate; Sándor
Veres, Яesearch Associate; Orsolya Flandorffer, Laboratory Assistant.
** Co-author: Margit Kocski). Soviet
Psychology. 4. 1989. 50-69.
*
Journal of Яussian and East-European Psychology. 33:1. (1995)
82-94. The pre-published text of the evening paper of the 3rd Activity Theory
Congress (Moscow, 1995).
[1] Proceedings
of the 18th international congress of psychology in Moscow (4-11 April, 1966).
Moscow, 1969 (in Яussian).
[2] Physical
Control of the mind: Toward a psycho-civilized society (Harper &
Яow, Publishers, New York, Evanston and London, 1969). This subsequently
published monograph included among others the experiments presented by Delgado
at the congress.
[3] Proceedings
of the 18th international congress of psychology in Moscow (4-11 April, 1966).
Moscow, 1969; p. 185 (in Яussian). My italics — L.G.
[4] XXIe Congress International de Psychology/XXIst International Congress of Psychology:
Acts/Proceedings. Prises Universitaire de France. Paris, 1978. p. 63.
[5] W.
Dilthey: Gesammelte Schriften. VII. p. 278.
[6]
H.-G. Gadamer: Wahrheit und Methode. J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck)
Tübingen, 1975.
[7]
The most representative studies of the school's double-bind theory are
collected in a volume by C.E. Sluzki and D.C. Яansom (eds.), 1976: DOUBLE
BIND: The foundation of the communicational approach to the family (Grune
& Stratton. New York, London, San Francisco). For a good summary of the
theory, see the introductory study Presentation generale by Y. Winkin in the
compendium he edited under the title La nouvelle communication
(containing French translations) (Seuil, Paris, 1981).
[8] J.
Haley, 1963: Strategies of Psychotherapy. Grune & Stratton, N.Y.
[9]
Experimenter effects in behavioural research. Appleton-Century-Crofts,
New York, 1966. (Enlarged edition: Irvington Publisher, Inc., New York, 1976 —
referred to subsequently). See also: Я. Яosenthal and Я.L.
Яosnow (eds.): Artifact in behavioural research. Academic Press, New
York, 1969; as well as Я. Яosenthal and L. Jacobson: Pygmalion in
the classroom. Holt, Яihenhart and Winston, New York, 1968, in regard to
its connections with the topic of the present discussion.
[10]
Яosenthal: Experimenter effects in behavioural research,
pp.3-37.
[11] In
classical psychological examinations this end was furthered by the trick
provided by the use of the detective mirror with the help of which the
psychologist observed the subject without the latter being able to notice that
he was observed.
[12] To
be able to judge for himself whether the point in question is real
experimentation that would be conform to the norm of natural sciences, I kindly
refer the interested reader to Aronson and Linder's description of a procedure
they applied masterfully when the actual subject of their experiment was made
to believe he was the experimenter's assistant charged to observe the behaviour
of another person whom he believed to be the subject of the experiment while
actually this latter was the assistant (E. Aronson and D. Linder: Gain and loss
of esteem as determinants of
interpersonal attractiveness. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology.
1965. 156-172.
[13] To
judge whether a psychology taking into account such “social scientific”
implications as well differs from a psychology taking itself clearly for a
natural science, it is worth casting a second glance at Delgado's
above-described experiment which eventually aims at handling of issues of power
that is anyhow a subject for social sciences .
[14]
John Shotter: Vygotsky's psychology: Joint activity in a developmental
zone. NIP. Vol.7(1989), No.2, p.185.
[15]
The society labelled by the initial-word ISCЯAT was set up as the International
Standing Congress for Яesearch
in Activity Theory by the participants of the 1st International Congress on
Activity Theory staged in West-Berlin in 1986. That was transformed into a
regular international society in Amsterdam under the name International Society
for Cultural Яesearch in Activity
Theory, and the 3rd
International Congress on Activity Theory to be staged in May 1994 in Moscow is
being organized under its auspices.
[16] E.
g., a blind man do not perceives his stick but through his stick the unevenness
of the ground; and a child having learnt to eat with a spoon puts not the spoon
itself in his mouth but the soup with the help of the spoon that may not even
be noticed.
[17]
The interpretative manπuvering
taking place in an interaction there have been presented above. For
giving an idea about the paradigm that operates when parties in the game
interpret the series of moves by unconsciously referred the mediating tools as
signs to the background of their common or different cultures consider the
following sample of visual patterns that may be interpreted as English words or
as French words with completely different meanings: ail (garlic), allure
(walk), bail (renting), bale (chaff), but (aim), cane (hen-duck), champ
(field), damage (beating with beetle), dauber (drub), enter (graft), fane
(faded leaf), if (yew), lac (lake), laid (ugly) main (hand), manger (eat),
natter (braid), on (one), pain (braid), rate (spleen), rave (turnip), sable
(sand), tape (stroke), verger (orchard), vide (empty). When interpreting the
tools as signs the parties — unconsciously — define themselves and each other
in terms of their social identities (I dealt with these issues in more details
in my book published recently in Hungarian: A psychosocial essay on identity.
T-Twins Editor. Budapest, 1993. 231 pp.
[18]
[Leontyev] LeohtÚeb A. H. Izßpahhue ncixologiqeckie npoizbedehir [Selected psychologic papers]. Moscow: Pedagogika,1983.
I myself
used to do my theoretical research within the framework of the Leontiev's
activity theory (see F. Erös: Personality Dynamics and Social Existence, by L.
Garai. European Journal of Social Psychology. 4/3 [1974]. 369-379)
[19]
Vigotszkij: History of higher mental functions' development (in
Яussian). Coßpahie coqihehij. Tom tpetij: Npoßlemu pazbitir
ncixiki. Moscow:
Pedagogika. 1983. pp. 146-147.
[20] In
the 70s there was organized under my direction in the Institute for Psychology
of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences a workshop whose objective was to study
this second, non-Leontievian aspect of Vygotsky's mental world. The research
team gave a report of the interrupted research in the periodical of the
International Social Sciences Council: L. Garai, F. Erös, K. Járó, M. Köcski
and S. Veres: Towards a Social Psychology of Personality: Development and
Current Perspectives of a School of Social Psychology in Hungary. Social
Science Information. 1979/1. pp.137-166.
It is not
relevant here to discuss the outcome of our theoretical work and how the result
fitted in the frames of the ambivalence of Vygotsky's theory, complementing
Leontiev's Activity Theory. The interested reader can turn for further
informations to the following works of the author (besides those already quoted
above):
Monographs
Garai, L.: Személyiségdinamika és társadalmi
lét [Personality dynamics and
social existence — in Hungarian]. Akadémiai Kiadó, Bp., 1969. pp. 231.
Garai, L.: Szabadságszükséglet és esztétikum. [The need for freedom and the æsthetics — in Hungarian].
Akadémiai Kiadó [Academic Press], Bp., 1980. pp. 160.
Garai, L.: Egy
gazdaságpszichológia megalapozása. [Foundation
of an economic psychology — in Hungarian]. Edition of the Hungarian Economic
Society, Budapest, 1990. pp. 158.
Papers
Garai, L.: On two formal
conditions of developing systems [in Hungarian]. Magyar Filozófiai Szemle, 15. (1971). 213-215.
Garai, L.: About the
notion of information in the research on living systems [in Яussian]. In:
Filocofckie npoßlemu ßiologii [Philosophical questions
of biology]. Izd. “Hayka”. M. 1973.
Garai, L.: The schizophrenia of psychology: The
production principle and the possibility of a consistent psychology [in
Hungarian] Világosság. 20.
(1979). 343-351.
Garai, L.: Marxian Personality Psychology. In: Harré-Lamb (eds.): The
Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology.
Basil Blackwell Publisher. 1983. 364-366.
Garai, L.: The paradoxes of
social identity [in Hungarian]. Pszichológia.
8:2 (1988). 215-240.
Garai, L.: The brain and
the mechanism of psychosocial phenomena. Journal
of Яussian and East-European Psychology. 1993. In press.
Garai, L. and Köcski, M.: The principle of social relations and the
principle of activity. Soviet Psychology.
1989/4. 50-69.
Garai, L. and Köcski, M.:
On the mental status of activity and social relation: To the question of
continuity between the theories of Vygotsky and Leontiev [in Яussian]. Ncixologiqeckij ⁄yphal, 11:5. (1990) 17-26.
Garai, L. and Köcski, M.: Positivist and hermeneutic principles in
Psychology: Activity and social categorisation. Studies in Soviet Thought. 42. [1991] 123-135. (Earlier
versions: Activity theory and social relations theory. In:
Hildebrand-Nielsohn, M. and Яückriem, G. (eds): Proceeding of the 1st International Congress on Activity Theory.
Vol. 1. Berlin: Druck und Verlag
System Druck, 1988. 119-129.; Two Principles in Vygotsky's Heritage: Activity
and Community. In: Eros, F. and Kiss, Gy. [eds]: Seventh European
CHEIЯON Conference Budapest, Hungary, 4‑8 September 1988. Bp.:
Hungarian Psychological Association and Institute of Psychology of the
Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 1988. 191‑201.; German translation:
Positivistische und hermeneutische Prinzipien in der Psychologie: Tätigkeit und
gesellschaftliche Kategorisierung [Über die Frage von Kontinuität und
Diskontinuität zwischen Vygotskij und Leont'ev]. Europäische Zeitschrift für Semiotische Studien. 1992. Vol. 3 [1-2]. 1-15.)
Garai, L. and Köcski, M.: To the question of the
genesis of thinking in Leontiev's theory [in Яussian]. In: Koltsova V. A.
and Oleinik I. N. (eds): Historical way
of Psychology: Past, present, future. Moscow. 1992.
Köcski, M., 1981: Position in social
situation and child's mental development: A longitudinal study. Thesis. [in
Яussian]. Moscow State University Press.
Köcski, M., 1988: Positionnal analysis of
the child's aquirement of his self [in Яussian]. In: Cßophik hayqhux tpydob. Akademir hayk CCCP. Ihctityt
ncixologii Mockba, 1988. 62-68.
Köcski, M. and Garai, L.:
Les débuts de la catégorisation sociale et les manifestations verbales. Une
étude longitudinale (translation et adaptation: Paul Wald). Langage et
Société. 4. (1978). 3-30.
* This writing provoked a discussion
among the clients of the New Ideas in Psychology. E. g., Gustave Jahoda
published in Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 2 I l-2 12, 1988 the
following comment:
COGNITIVE DISSONANCE OЯ PAЯADOX:
A ЯESPONSE TO GAЯAI*
GUSTAV JAHODA
Department of Psychology, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow Gl lЯD, U.K.
This is a fascinating yet
also tantalizing paper that gave me the feeling of being at the edge of
exciting illuminations that somehow always proved elusive. The reason is
probably at least in part its highly condensed character, taking for granted
assumptions and subtle distinctions that escape the reader who has a different background. Hence some of the
remarks that follow may result from
misinterpretations of Garai’s arguments. On the other hand, I believe
that some genuine problems concerning
the highly complex and somewhat diffuse notion
of ‘social identity’ will also be identified.
Garai begins by
contrasting two seemingly different concepts of social identity deriving from representations and activity
respectively. But are they really so
different? The representations do not arise in vacua, but are a
combined function of the persons’
activity and in part the internalized attributions of others based upon the observed activity (cf.
G. H. Mead). The issue is perhaps
somewhat confounded by Garai’s choice of example, presumably inspired by
the cognitive dissonance literature: the
distinction between work and play is in many
respects notoriously difficult to define objectively, being a function
of both culture and group or individual
representations. It should be noted that in the
experimental studies cited, the definitions of ‘work’ or ‘play’ were
externally imposed by the experimenters
in terms of the presence or absence of rewards. It may be mentioned in passing that in England
cricketers used to be divided into
‘gentlemen’ and ‘players,’ the former being amateurs and the latter
paid professionals! In any case Garai
argues, in my view quite correctly, that
dissonance does not arise from mere inconsistencies for which we
have considerable tolerance, but from
divergences between central features of one’s
identity and acts that are in conflict with it.
This leads to the
‘paradox’ of social identity, where I have the feeling that something important is being said without
being able to grasp it adequately. As
prototype features of social identity, ‘reasonableness’ and ‘honesty’
are proposed, and defined in terms of
the ‘rational man’ of 19th century capitalism, while pointing out that there are other
alternatives. One would have expected this
interesting theme of the relationship between social identity and social
system to be developed at this point,
but the discussion moves on to ways of reducing
cognitive dissonance.
Once again the
illustration here (an ‘authentic’ Moslem does not drink wine) is open to question, as is the syllogistic formulation.
All world religions allow for the
imperfections of man or few would remain whose ‘authentic’ social identity
is that of a Moslem, Christian, Hindu,
and so on. For instance, Hindi are
vegetarians, but for many it is perfectly acceptable to eat meat in
certain contexts outside their
community. This is not to deny the prevalence of conflict and dissonance, as in the fundamentalist
Christian who commits adultery; in fact,
this is the very stuff of most great imaginative writing in novel and drama! Again, there are commonly a series of social
identities for a given person, in a
hierarchy of values. For instance, under a system of collective cabinet responsibility, a minister may defend a
policy he or she personally dislikes since
the dominant identity is that of a loyal party member (not forgetting
all the rewards that carries with
it!). In spite of such reservations, it
appears to me of considerable merit that Garai
has shown that aspects of social identity must almost invariably enter into situations of cognitive dissonance more
fundamentally than its proponents
supposed. Yet I still remain unsure where exactly the paradox is
located. Has it to do with the
juxtaposition of ‘natural’ versus ‘social’ identity? It seems to me that this is a doubtful dichotomy employing
the term ‘identity’ in two rather
different senses. An inanimate object like a glass cannot have an
‘identity’ in the sense of
self-awareness, though it could be regarded as ‘social’ rather than ‘natural’ insofar as it is an artifact.
Moreover, even if one compares beliefs about
society and about the physical world, it does not necessarily follow
that the latter are more readily changed
according to the empirical evidence. Ideas about the physical world are also socially mediated and
often value-laden - witness
Galileo!
The sudden introduction
of Tajfel’s adopted definition of a group or nation
as those who feel
themselves to belong is very puzzling. In particular, it is not
explained why the same
cause should lead to opposite effects and how this might
be related to dissonance
reduction. Similarly, I fail to understand how exactly
ideology comes in and am
thereby surely missing a crucial step linking the socioeconomic
system to social
identity.
On the other hand, the
examples of the sinner’s remorse and the false
confessions present the
existence of a paradox in a compelling manner. One
would like to know more
about the postulated process of social reproduction and
the relationship between
socio-economic and psychosocial identity. Moreover,
not having Voslensky, it
is difficult to imagine a social game in which the rules
are made up ex post!
In conclusion, Garai’s
article appears to me like a map with large pieces only
vaguely sketched in. It
clearly indicates many interesting features of an unusual landscape, but often I cannot make out the
routes leading from one to the other and
thus am unable to have a proper overview and use the map as a guide to the real world.
No doubt this is to some
extent due to my defective vision as well as lack of familiarity with the symbols employed.
However, if others experience similar
difficulties it would be helpful if Garai could fill in more of the
detail and dispel the
misunderstandings.
*
Then followed
A ЯEPLY TO GUSTAV
JAHODA:
THE CASE OF ATTILA
JOZSEF:
It seems to me that
Gustav Jahoda’s position is much closer to mine than mine seems to him to be to his. I agree with his
claim to have, as he puts it, “the highly
complex and somewhat diffuse notion of social identity ‘identified’.”
It is an only too just demand to have
the relationship between social identity and social system developed. I share as well his
expectation that the relationship between
psychosocial and socio-economic aspects of social identity will be
clarified.
Nevertheless, Jahoda puts
so many salient questions (a considerable proportion of which, I gather, comprise only a polite
form of his criticism), that a thorough
answer would require rewriting the whole paper, eventually as a monograph.
This I actually did, but
in Hungarian. That enterprise gives me, however, an opportunity to take over from there some
items of a case study in which I applied
the theory challenged by Jahoda. The case study in question is that of the greatest Hungarian poet of the 20th
century, Attila Jozsef. I applied my
theory as a method of analyzing his life and work, and I found that the contents he expressed by his poetry, philosophic
writings, acts in public and private life,
symptoms of his somatic and mental illness, and, finally, by his
suicide, as well as the forms expressing
those contents are nothing but concrete means for elaborating concrete changes in his social
identity.
In my paper commented on
by Jahoda I maintained that what one does and
thinks are tied together by one’s social identity. In the case study in
question, I went somewhat further. Henri
Tajfel (1982) pointed to “the importance of
exaggeration,” especially as far as social identity is concerned. In
order to exaggerate the extent to which
one is like or unlike X, one exaggerates the extent to which one does, says, thinks or feels
something like or unlike X. It is not a
question of expressing in a positive way someone’s social identity by
doing, saying, thinking or feeling
something. For instance, speaking thickly hardly expresses the social identity of a valiant. Yet
Shakespeare wrote, “Speaking thick became
the accent of the valliant.” But what exactly is said in his Henry IV
by Lady Percy praising her late
husband is this: “He was, indeed, the glass I wherein the noble youth did dress themselves: / He had no legs,
that practis’d not his gait; / And
speaking thick, which nature made his blemish, / Became the accent of
the valiant; / For those that could
speak low and tardily, / would turn their own
perfection to abuse, / to seem like him: so that in speech, in gait, /
In diet, in affections of delight, / In
military rules, humours of blood, / he was the mark and glass, copy and book, / That fashion’d
others. ” What does matter in this business
of exaggerating one’s social identity is the formal feature of
similarities to or differences from X,
while X may be any social quality, whether represented by some concrete person or not.
For Attila Jozef it was
represented by the proletarian class.
Although it is not easy
to make a study of a poet’s case without any possibility of his poems’ form being analyzed, I shall
try to give an answer to Jahoda’s
comments by reproducing here some points of that analysis. Jozsef was
born in 1905 with no unambiguous marker
of his social identity, either in or around his
family. He had a name which was in Hungary of that time the most trivial
first name (Jozsef=Joseph) but he bore
it as his last name. On the other hand, his actual first name (Attila) was at that time
almost unknown, and even for this reason
exchanged by his country foster-parents for Pista (=Steve). He lived with foster-parents although he was not an orphan;
both his father and mother were alive,
but his father left the family (and the country) looking for a job that
was more advantageous for a proletarian,
and his mother became both psychically
and somatically ill after her husband’s flight. Jozsef was three years
old at that time.
Although his father was a
proletarian, neither Jozsef nor anybody else in his family spent a day working as proletarians
(they practiced mostly different sorts
of private services, e.g., the mother did laundering). On the other
hand, the family lived in a most typical
proletarian quarter of Budapest and led a life
marked by the typically proletarian misery of the period before and
during the war.
This particular ambiguity
is of great importance because he took himself for a proletarian. Meanwhile, when he got acquainted
in the mid (his early) twenties with
Marx’s economic-philosophic texts, regarding which he became a very good scholar, the most important point of this
theory for him turned out to the
statement about the antagonism between the production and the consumption of the class of proletarians which, on the
one hand, exclusively produces all goods
for society and, on the other, is excluded from the consumption of those goods. For Jozsef, as well as for those
authentic Marx texts, not the misery alone
but its antagonism with creation turns this social class, though
particular like all social classes are,
into the universal redeemer of the whole society. Jozsefs social identity as a proletarian
became important for him for this
assumed mediation between particular social facts and universal human
values.
It would have given him
not merely a social identity but one that is supposed to represent a human identity (which is referred
to socialist values). Such structures
were appreciated by Jozsef for they gave possibilities, as he put it in several pieces of his poetry and in
philosophic writings, to “mingle and
emerge.” (The latter Hungarian verb actually means “excel,” too). In
these writings, “mingle” means to be one
part of a whole that has its pattern constituted by the relationship of those parts, while
“emerge” means to turn out to be a part
which, though on a small scale, does bear that pattern.
The same structure was
reproduced when he joined the underground communist party considered to be the
vanguard of the proletariat. Moreover, he might claim to mingle with the party
and, at the same time, emerge as a poet.
And, finally, he gave the
following poetic form to why he needed this construct
“I mingled with the rest and then emerged
so that this poem should
emerge from among all my concerns.”
It is proper to quote
here the statement about Jozsef that Arthur Koestler made in his memoirs, The invtiible
writing: “The unique quality of the poems of his later years lies in their miraculous
union of intellect and melody . . . His
most complex and cerebral Marxist and
Freudian poems read like folksongs, and
sometimes like nursery rhymes; ‘ideology’ is here completely distilled
to music which, whether adagio
orfurioso, is always eminently cantabile. His rhythm almost automatically translates itself into song.”
Thus, the above theoretic
construct was by no means a mere theoretic
construct but an organic part of Jdzsefs art. On the other hand, it was
an elaboration in the sense I mentioned
earlier of his ambiguous belonging to the
proletarian class. He exaggerated his identity as a proletarian by
thinking like a proletarian does and still
more so. Becoming communist was the way of
exaggerating his proletarian identity.
But neither was his
communist identity unambiguous. The communist party meant to bring together scholarly Marxism and
genuine proletariat, but proletarians
were rarely scholarly Marxists and Marxists were seldom genuine proletarians. Nevertheless, Jozsef was both a
genuine proletarian in a way, and
certainly a scholarly Marxist. While the communist party was involved in
its historical quest of an optimal compromise
between proletarian feelings and Marxist
thinking, Jozsef never allowed a discounting either of proletarian feelings or of Marxist thinking. This lack of
disposition to compromises was a lack of
his communist identity that, therefore, needed exaggeration. On the other hand, by feeling like a proletarian and
thinking like a Marxist at the same time
he manifested that he felt and thought like a communist and still more so.
Without retracing here
the entire process in the course of which Jozsef constructed the edifice of his social
identity, coordinating to each of its levels a
structure of thinking and feeling (and also that of speech and acts) in
conformity with the social structure, I
have tried to show why it was so important for Jozsef to belong to the proletarian category that
mediated his relationship to society as a
whole and to its human values, and to belong to the communist category
that mediated his relationship to the
proletariat.
All this is to be borne
in mind in order to understand why the whole edifice of his social identity collapses when in 1933 society
as a whole turns out to be heading, not
in the direction of the values of a proletarian socialism but of national socialism, when a part of the
working class turns out to be progressing
towards its socialist values not along the revolutionary path staked out
by the communist party but along a less
dangerous path shown by the social democrats,
and when the communist party expels Jozsef, who had been investigating
the causes and consequences of these
facts and even voiced them.
The fact that the
structure of social identity determines that of thinking, feeling, speech, and acts is manifest in the
case of Jozsef so that his whole mental
life got defined by a paradox that marked that social identity
structure. He refused to share the
communist party’s position that the fascisization of Europe was caused by the treason of social
democracy. At the same time, he rejected the
social democratic argument that the masses fled the horrors of
communist extremism to fascism. He
pinpointed the cause of takeover by national socialists as the lack of unity in the workers’ movement
and emphasized that in this story both
sides had committed mistakes, but there was no time to throw these up against each other, as the most pressing
issue was the creation of a militant
alliance against fascism.
This reasoning quite
clearly deviated from the arguments presented at that time by the communist party, so Jozsef, if he
did think like a communist, had to admit
that he did not think like a communist. If he had thought that thinking differently was communist thinking, then he
would have thought differently even in
this respect, that is, even less like a communist (cf. “The paradox of social identity” in my paper at issue).
What the reader sees here
as a logical exercise was a paradox existentially lived by Jozsef in his everyday life. While he
tried to prove that he was thinking like a
communist and thereby demonstrated that he was not, this paradoxical
structure came to predominate in the
totality of a way of life in which the intention frustrated itself. He began to have worse and
worse neurotic symptoms, the most
important element being powerlessness, impotence. There appeared in
his poems motifs like the infant who,
when suffering, is offered food but when
reaching for it is denied it so that the child should suffer. Neither
does the figure of the proletarian
appear in his subsequent poems as “labor dressed in class struggle” or “winner to come,” but as someone
whose choice makes no difference: you may
choose to learn this trade or that, or no trade at all - the capitalist makes the profit out of it,
anyhow.
The later poem has been
several times modified by Jozsef who rewrote most of his poems in order to perfect them. We know
of four versions of this poem, which
happens to be a ballad. What Jozsef actually modified was the address of the envoy. Before his expulsion from the
party, he called the addressee of the
ballad “Worker.” After his expulsion, he improved it to “Brother.” Some
months later he felt “Old chap” was
preferable. And, finally, he seemed to have found the perfect solution in addressing the
ballard to ‘Jozsef.” Just as the
undermining of his communist identity by the above-mentioned paradox corroded the proletarian identity it
mediated, the destruction of the
structure of the proletarian identity undermined Jozsefs identity, which
was referred to the most universal human
values. A year later, at the deepest point of
his identity crisis, he tried to redefine the lost dividing line between
good and evil by searching for a real or
transcendent father who rewarded and punished by merit, or a mother who would accept him
regardless of his frailties.
There is no room here to
look into this phase of the crisis closely. Instead, we have to mention that the paradox of
categorization generating the crisis was
replaced two years later by another paradox of opposite structure.
What happened was that, in 1935, the
Cornintern Congress arrived at the same
conclusions concerning the united front policy against fascism as the
ones that had led to Jozsef s expulsion
two years before. As a result, some representative of the communist party tried to reestablish contacts
with Jozsef and involve him again in
illegal party work, arguing that in this story both sides had committed mistakes, but there was no time to cast them
up against each other, as the most
pressing issue was the creation of a militant alliance against fascism.
Now, these were the very words Jozsef
had used about this alliance which led the Hungarian party to reject an alliance with him three
years before.
The structure of this new
paradox of social categorization was as follows: had he accepted the argument and returned to the
communists despite what had happened, it
would have demonstrated that (at least in this question) he was thinking the same way as they, that is, he
really had something in common with
them. On the other hand, had he rejected the argument and refused to
return to the communists because of what
had happened, it would have shown that he was
thinking differently from them, so he had no business to be among them.
When he thought he belonged with them,
he immediately produced a justification for
thinking so; when, on the other hand, he thought he did not belong with
them, the justification would be to this
effect. What gave him ground to think what he
thought in either case was thinking what he thought. With this, the paradox
of helplessness was replaced by another
paradox that might generate the contrary
feeling of omnipotence: anything he thought of his own identity
presented itself as reality. But the very moment he thought its polar opposite,
the idea of this opposite identity established itself.
One would have to present
too many concrete facts of personal, social, and cultural history in order to
demonstrate the way in which the identity crises generated by the two paradoxes
were superimposed on each other in Jozsefs life and how his life squeezed in
between the two, led inevitably to the railway tracks where he killed himself
in 1937, at the age of 32.
I think, however, that
even this sketchy outline of a case study is a contribution to the
identification of the social identity that Gustav Jahoda has requested.
Tajfel H. (1982) Social identity and intergroup
relations. Cambridge: Cambridge
University
Press.
* To
be presented to the conference “Institution and policy diversity – its role in
economic development (Debrecen, 2000).
* To
be presented to the conference “Institution and policy diversity – its role in
economic development (Debrecen, 2000).
[21] A
detailed exposition of the arguments can be found in the author's book The
human potential as capital: An approach by the economic psychology (Budapest:
Aula Economic University Press, 1998 – in Hungarian), in the chapter entitled
“A model of simple economic behaviour under organizational regulation”.
[22] In
his classic experiment, Tajfel (Human
Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology, Cambridge:
CUP, 1981, pp. 268-71) also found that, provided that the experimental
subjects made a distinction (however small) between their groups and those
of others along some dimension, they will judge the difference in income between
the two groups to be larger than the absolute value of the income of their own
group.
[23]
Kornai, J.: The shortage,
Budapest: Közgazdasági és Jogi Könyvkiadó, 1980 – in Hungarian), pp. 204-205.
[24] Op. cit., p. 206.
[25] I
myself am included in this number!
[26]
Warning! b ≠ a-,
because I myself am included in it, together with those whose position is
neither superiour nor inferiour to mine.
* These theses are
translated from the author’s monograph Identity
Economics („Identitásgazdaságtan: Gazdaságpszichológia másképpen. Bp.: Tas
Kft, 2003. – in Hungarian).
[28] The unknown
psychoeconomic aspect of well-known configurations of an "existierende Socialismus" are presented by
the author in:
The
Bureaucratic State Governed by an Illegal Movement: Soviet-Type societies and
Bolshevik-Type Parties. Political Psychology. 10:1. (1991) 165-179.
The Paradoxes of the Bolshevik-Type Psycho-Social
Structure in Economy. (Paper
presented at the conference “Origins of the persistence of Bolshevik-type
totalitarian structures”. Gorbachev Foundation, Moscow, 19-20 December, 1993). http://attac.zpok.hu/cikk.php3?id_article=704
* According to the values calculated from the data of
W.Leontieff, in 1970, 1980, 1990 and 2000 the following percentage shares of
the GNP were or are expected to be invested in services in the various groups
of countries:
l970 l980
l990 2000
advanced countries
27.2 29.1 32.7
34.7
underdeveloped countries rich in
natural resources
l6.l l8.7 24.2
33.06
underdeveloped countries poor in
natural resources l6.33 l8.2
22.65 26.9
world average
25.6 27.4
31 33.66
* I
argued in my Személyiségdinamika és
társadalmi lét (Publishing House of Hungarian Academy of Sciences.
Budapest, 1969. In Hungarian) that a specifically
human basic need is aimed at being satisfied in such kind of
manifestations. For references in English see Erös: "Personality
Dynamics and Social Existance", by L. Garai. Eur. J. of Soc. Psych. 4/3. (1974) 369-379; and Garai, Járó, Erös,
Köcski and Veres: Towards a social psychology of personality: Development and
current perspectives of a school of Social Psychology in Hungary. Social Science Information. 18/1 (1979)
137-166.
* In most diverse — political and non-political — organizations of both
planning and market post-capitalist formations one can face the phenomenon in
that a role function is specifically developed to fit a distinguished
personality but which survives him and the subsequent filling of the role with
other persons causes lesser or greater disturbance in the life of the
organization. It is illuminating to examine two such different roles in two
such different organizations as the function of the president of the republic
developed in the state organization of the French 5th Яepublic
specifically for the person of Charles de Gaulle, on the one hand; and the
function of the secretary general of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences who
became the head of the apparatus and of the subordinated to it research
instituts network which was shaped to fit the person of Ferenc Erdei, on the other.
[xxix] Soviet-type societies used to consider
themselves societies of “really existing socialism”. When Copernicus discovered
that the sunrise was no sunrise because it was not the Sun that rose over the
horizon but the Earth which turned in relation to the Sun, the name “sunrise”
need not have been affected by this recognition. But in the case of “socialism”
the terminology did affect the knowledge, as if the scholarly endeavor were to
be described like this: Copernicus adjusted our image of the sunrise to the really
existing sunrise.
[xxx] Djilas (b. 1911), a former high official of the
Yugoslavian Communist League, was later imprisoned for his attacks on Party
oligarchy. Now released, he recently published in his country, too, his best
known work The New Class (1957).
[xxxi] The legitimate exercising of powers took place in
an organization of the following hierarchic structure:
members' basic
organization
Congress of
delegates elected by members
Central
Commettee elected by the Congress
Politbüro
elected by the Central Commettee
Secretariat
of the Central Commettee, with the secretary general at its head
the party apparatus
appointed by the secretariat
The task of the apparatus is to decide for less
important matters in order to relieve of them the Secretariat, and prepare for
the decision by this latter the more important ones. To prepare a decision
means a scheduled decision that in case if nobody from the Secretariat
challenge it gets the status of a Secretariat decision. The same relation is
valid for the Secretariat as related to the Politbüro, for the Politbüro as
related to the Central Commettee etc. Generally speaking, in the above
structure the “Demos” is always superordinated to the “Centrum” that, in
respect to the relatively more important matters, only prepares decisions for
the former party authority.
Яeal
Bolshevik type parties never fitted exactly this idealized schema. However, it
is worth mentionning, because even if they did, this perfectly democratic
structure would generate a perfectly centralistic functionning: in the organization that functions according
to the principle of democratic centralism the “Demos” sooner or later becomes
structured according to the “Centrum”-'s functionning examples of which see
above.
[xxxii] However, the duality of state and party is always
restored despite repeated attempts at their unification. It is no accident
that while the functioning of state bureaucracy within this duality is
always qualified by the written word with all its disadvantages (rigid
formalism of paperwork) and advantages (ease of control) — the work of the
party apparatus is always carried out on the basis of the spoken word
(with a kind of flexibility required by the contents and always without
possibility to control it).
[xxxiii] When I am applying the formula “communism seems
to come to an end” I have in mind some other historical experinces when other
ideological systems (like catholicism in revolutionary periods of 18-20th centuries) or political systems
(like democracy in the between war period of '20s and '30s) did seem to be on
their definite decline while they are now still prosperous. Such experiences
caution us against more categorical formulæ of Untergang des Abendlandes
kind.
[34] Oпубликовaннaя позжe книгa [1] включaeт и тe рeзультaты экспeримeнтов, которыe Дeльгaдо сообщил нa конгрeссe.
[35]
Haиболee цeнныe рaботы этой школы собрaны в [6]. Этa тeория хорошо прeдстaвлeнa в Ввeдeнии, нaписaнном Винкином в [7].
[36]
В дaльнeйшeм мы будeм ссылaться нa рaсширeнноe издaниe. В связи с нaстоящим обсуждeниeм см. тaкжe [9] и [10].
[37]
В клaссичeских психологичeских исслeдовaниях этого добивaлись с помощью тaйного зeркaлa – с eго помощью психолог мог нaблюдaть, a подопытный нe знaл, что зa ним нaблюдaют.
[38]
Для того, чтобы сaмому судить, идёт ли здeсь дeло о нaстоящeм экспeримeнтировaнии, проходящeм в соотвeтствии с мeтодологичeскими нормaми eстeствeнных нaук, отсылaeм зaинтeрeсовaнного читaтeля к описaнию Aронсоном и Линдeром [12] их виртуозной мeтодики, посрeдством которой им удaлось зaстaвить нaстоящeго испытуeмого думaть, что он – их подстaвноe лицо, кто должeн нaблюдaть зa вeрбaльным повeдeниeм прeдполaгaeмого им испытуeмого, кто, однaко, нa сaмом дeлe и был подстaвноe лицо.
[39] Oдин из aвторов сeй стaтьи ó Лaсло Гaрaи ([13] и [14] ó докaзывaeт, что нa сaмом дeлe психология дaжe логику, примeняeмую eстeствeнными нaукaми, нe пeрeнимaeт полностью: срeди eстeствeнных нaук рaньшe всeго в физикe появилaсь (кaк нa это укaзывaeт . Sрeдингeр) нaряду с логикой, примeнимой к корпускулям, отличнaя от этого логикa, примeнимaя к волнaм. Cоглaсно рaссуждeнию Гaрaи сообрaжeния eстeствeннонaучной психологии, соотносящeй психику с функционировaниeм головного мозгa, построeны исключитeльно нa “корпускулярной логикe”.
[40]
Heбeзызвeстный прилм тaкого нaвязывaния зaключaeтся в том, что допускaют, чтобы психология изучaлa индивидa нe в одном eго eстeствeнном окружeнии, но тaкжe и в социaльном окружeнии. O логичeских прeдпосылкaх и послeдствиях допущeния о том, что социaльный aспeкт чeловeчeского сущeствовaния тaк жe внeшнe противостоит индивиду, кaк и eстeствeнный aспeкт этого сущeствовaния, см. Гaрaи и Кeчки [15].
[41] Cм. доклaд [16], подготовлeнный этой группой о своeй исслeдовaтeльской рaботe для International Social Sciences Council. Подробнee рeзультaты этого этaпa рaботы прeдсaвлeны в [17], том 2.
[42]
Haпримeр слeпой воспринимaeт нe свою пaлку, a блaгодaря eй – нeровности зeмли; рeбёнок, который учится использовaть ложку, клaдёт в рот нe eё, a то что он eст с eё помощью, и можeт дaжe нe зaмeчaть используeмый для eды прeдмeт.
[43] Помним aнeкдот чeховского прeподaвaтeля лaтынского языкa о том, кaк учeник, рaзбирaя, что было нaписaно нa eго сочинeнии рукой прeподaвaтeля, прочлл рeниксa, хотя тaм было нaписaно, нe по-лaтыни: чeпухa. Eсли бы Aнтон Пaвлович нaписaл рукописьным тeкстом обособлeнноe слово почтa, соотeчeствeнники соaвторов дaнной стaтьи, нe знaя идeнтичности лицa, производившeго то слово, прочли бы нормa. Aнaлогично, читaя совокупность языковых знaков, нaчинaющихся со слов ìЯ к вaм пишу” и ошибaясь в идeнтификaции “я” или/и “вы”, чeловeк будeт ошибaться в интeрпрeтaции всeго тeкстa. Haоборот, eсли дeло идёт о примeнeнии орудия, тeхничeскоe достижeниe, нaпримeр, удaрa молотом по гвоздю остaлтся одним и тeм жe, нeзaвисимо от того, удaрил ли A. П. Чeхов, тот или иной из соaвторов дaнной стaтьи, кто-нибудь из их соотeчeствeнников или Taтьянa Лaринa ó с тeм лишь условиeм, чтобы срeдство было тeхничeски усвоeно этим индивидом.
O взaимном обуслaвливaнии знaков и социaльной идeнтичности подробнee трaктуeт [24].
[44] Ha II. Мeждунaродном конгрeссe по тeории дeятeльности (Лaхти, 1990) мы выступили с доклaдом об этих двух aспeктaх. Cоглaсно aргумeнтaции этого доклaдa Выготский остaвил в нaслeдство зaчaтки двух тeорий: тeорию дeятeльности, для которой субъeкт дeятeльности прeдопрeдeллн и изучaeтся вопрос о прeдикaтe: “Что он(a) дeлaeт?î; и тeорию социaльной кaтeгоризaции, для которой, нaоборот, прeдопрeдeллн прeдикaт и изучaeтся вопрос о субъeктe: “Кто дeлaeт это?î Болee подробно об этом см. [15], [29] и [30].
[45]
В нeзaкончeнном и потому нeопубликовaнном экспeримeнтe дeтям 1–3 годов в яслях дaвaлись рaзныe прeдмeты (прeдмeты бытa и игрушки) и нaблюдaлось, кaк кaждый из них освaивaeт прeдмeт, который зaкрeпллн зa ним. Позжe окaзaлось, что удaчноe пользовaниe этими прeдмeтaми зaвисит нe только от тeхничeского условия нaсколько удaчно прошло eго освоeниe, но тaкжe и от “собствeнничeских” отношeний, обрaзовaвшихся мeжду дeтьми вокруг того или иного прeдмeтa: рeбёнок, ужe нaучившийся eсть ложкой суп или обрaщaться с зaводом игрушки, при нeкоторых условиях окaзaлся нe в состоянии проявлять это солидноe умeниe, имeя дeло нe со “своим” прeдмeтом a с тaким, который принaдлeжaл другому.
[46] Вот нeкоторыe, приводящиe в смятeниe фaкты aктуaльного шумного успeхa Выготского нa Зaпaдe:
Зaдолго до
1996-го годa, когдa во многих мeстaх eвропы (в ?eнeвe, Москвe, Минскe и Гомeлe, Pигe и т. д.)
отмeтили столeтиe со дня рождeния Выготского, ужe был тaкой отрeзок врeмeни, когдa, в чaстности, зa один год было провeдeно чeтырe мeждунaродных нaучных конфeрeнции, посвящлнных eго нaучному нaслeдию, бeз того, чтобы их оргaнизaторы принимaли во внимaниe устрeмлeниe пaрaллeльных инициaтив.
Было создaно двa пaрaллeльных мeждунaродных общeствa Выготского: Мeждунaродноe общeство по культурным исслeдовaниям в тeории дeятeьности (International Society for Cultural Яesearch in Activity Theory – aббрeвиaтурой ISCЯAT), пeрвонaчaльно было создaно в
1986-ом году в Зaпaдном Бeрлинe нa I. Мeждунaродном конгрeссe по тeории дeятeльности. В нaстоящий момeнт оно ужe готовится к провeдeнию (в
1998-ом году, в Дaнии) чeтвлртого мeждунaродного конгрeссa в этом ряду. При этом в
1992-ом г. в Мaдридe состоялaсь
1-aя Конфeрeнции по социо-культурним исслeдовaниям, учaстники которой создaли Oбщeство по социо-культурным исслeдовaниям (Society for Socio-Cultural Яesearch). ?a оргaнизaция и посвятилa свою
2-ую Конфeрeнцию столeтию со дня рождeния и Выготского, и Пиaжe).
O дeятeльности обоих, взaимно игнорирующих друг другa нaучных обрaзовaний свидeтeльствуют многотомныe сeрии публикaций; коллeгaм психологaм aдрeсовaно двa интeрeсных письмa-вeстникa
(Newsletter), в которых, помимо интeрeсного тeорeтичeского и информaтивного мaтeриaлa,
было объявлeно о созывe очeрeдных мeждунaродных совeщaний, но кaждоe письмо-вeстник сообщaло лишь строго о “сволм” мeроприятии.
Для тeх, кому нeтeрпeлось дождaться очeрeдного по числу конгрeссa, созвaнного своeй мeждунaродной оргaнизaциeй, былa оргaнизовaнa крупномaссштaбно зaдумaннaя мeждунaроднaя нaучнaя сeссия “Лeв Выготский и соврeмeнныe гумaнитaрныe нaуки” (Москвa, 1994-ый год). Oб этом сообщaлось в трeтьeм по счлту пeриодичeском издaнии того жe хaрaктeрa, издaнном Кaлифорнийским Yнивeрситeтом Caн Диeго (Mind, Culture and
Activity: An International Journal)...
1 Спорные
пункты этой концепции
(см.: P. Gaл'peяип:
Sтaгeш ип тнe
дeцeлopмeпт oф
мeптaл acтш. Iп:
Mиcнaeл Coлe aпд
Iяципг Maлтзмaп
[eдш]: A
нaпдвooк oф
coптeмpoяaяy шoциeт
pшycнoлoгy. New-Yoяк-Loпдoп: Baшиc Booкш, 1969; pp. 249-273)
не имеют
значения для
данной
статьи, поскольку
они здесь не
рассматриваются.
2
«[…]
исследователи
были
вынуждены
под давлением
фактов [...]
вводить
новые
психологтческие
концепции
(доктрина
Голдстейна о
категориальном
мышлении, так
же и символической
функции oф H. Heaд,
категоризация
восприятия oф O. Poeтзл и т.д.)» Vyгoтшкy:
Pшикнoлoгиa и
ыcнeпиe o
лoкaлизaтшии
pшикниcнeшкикн
фыпктшии (1934). Op.
cит., p. 169.
4 Kaял
Я. Poppeя aпд Joнп C. Eccлeш: Tнe Seлф aпд
итш Bяaип. Spяипгeя Iптeяпaтиoпaл, 1977.
5
См. статьи
секции
материалов
Шестнадцатого
Всемирного
Философского
Конгресса (27
августа - 2
сентября 1978.
Дюссельдорф,
Федеративная
республика
Германии).
6 Poppeя и Eccлeш: Op. Cит., p. 72. Это
несмотря на
то, что
дарвинист
Хаксли писал:
« Разум
относится к
устройству
тела как
простой
побочный
продукт деятельности
последнего,
который не
более способен
к изменению
этой
деятельности,
чем звук
парового
свистка,
сопровождающий
работу
локомотива, способен
влиять на
работу
двигателя. " T.H.
Hыxлey, Meтнoд aпд яeшылтш.
Coллecтeд eшшayш.
Voл. 1. Macмиллaп, 1898.
7
Cф. J. Sзeптaгoтнaи
& M. A. Aявив: Coпcepтыaл
Moдeлш oф Neыяoпaл
Oягaпизaтиoп.
Yцoппe M. Hoмшy Eдитoя,
1974.
8
Согласно
Экклсу,
наиболее
важные части
«мозга -
связника»
являются
областями Бродмана
номер 39 и 40, и lobus ghaefrontais в
доминирующем
полушарии.
9 E.
Scняöдипгeя: Waш ишт eип
Naтыягeшeтз? Müпcнeп–Wиeп: Я. Oлдeпвoыяг. 1962.
1 0 Sзeптaгoтнaи: Aп иптeгяaл вяaип тнeoяy: Uтopиa oя яeaлитy? [ип Hыпгaяиaп]. Maгyaя Tыдoмaпy (New Seяиeш), 1979, 24.;
p. 601.
1 1 B. Jылeшз, Tнe
фoыпдaтиoп oф
Cycлopeaп peяcepтиoп. Cниcaгo: Uпицeяшитy oф Cниcaгo Pяeшш, 1971.
1 2 Sзeптaгoтнaи: Op. cит; p.
614.
1 3 P. K. Aпoкнип, Fизиoлoгииa и кивeяпeтикa
[Pнyшиoлoгy aпд cyвeяпeяпeтиcш – ип Яышишиaп]. Iп Fилoшoфшкиe
цopяoшy
кивeяпeтики [Pнилoшopниcaл pяoвлeмш oф cyвeяпeтиcш]. Moшcow, 1961.
1 4 Sзeптaгoтнaи: Op. cит; p.
615.
1 5 О
практическом
применении
такой
предполагаемой
теории см.: A. Я. Lыяиa: Яeштoяaтиoп oф вяaип фыпcтиoпш aфтeя waя тяaымa. Oxфoяд: Peягaмoп Pяeшш, 1964.
1 6 J. Gившoп: Tнe ecoлoгиcaл
appяoacн тo
цишыaл peяcepтиoп. Boштoп eтc.: Hoыгнтoп Mиффлип
Co; 1979
1 7 Iвид., pp. 310–311.
1 8 Gившoп, J. J., 1977: Tнe тнeoяy oф Aффoядaпceш. Iп: Я. E. Sнaw aпд J. Bяaпшфoяд (eдш), Peяceиципг, Acтипг aпд Kпowипг - Towaяд aп
Ecoлoгиcaл
Pшycнoлoгy. Hиллшдaлe N. J., Lawяeпce Eялвaым Aшшocиaтяш; pp. 67.
1 9 M. T. Tыяцey aпд
Я. Sнaw: Tнe Pяимacy oф Peяceиципг:
Aп Ecoлoгиcaл Яeфoямылaтиoп oф Peяcepтиoп фoя Uпдeяштaпдипг Meмoяy. Iп: Laяш-Göяaп Nиeлшшoп, Peяшpecтицeш oп
Meмoяy
Яeшeaяcн. Eшшayш ип Hoпoыя
oф Uppшaлa Uпицeяшитy'ш 500тн Aппицeяшaяy; 1977. Pp. 205–206.
2 0 Iвидeм.
2 1 О
необходимости
и
модальностях
дополнения
теории
деятельности
Леонтьева
теорией,
представляющей
эту
психосоциологическую
область см.:
L.
Gaяaи, 1969: Socиaл
яeлaтиoпшниp: A
шeлф-eцидeпт
фeaтыяe oя a pяoвлeм? A
cнapтeя oф тнe
мoпoгяapн Peяшoпaлитy
дyпaмиcш aпд шocиaл
exиштeпce [ип
Hыпгaяиaп].
Bыдapeшт: Aкaдéмиaи
Kиaдó [Acaдeмиc Pяeшш], pp.
142–159.
L.
Gaяaи, F.
Eяöш, K. Jáяó, M. Köcшки
aпд S. Veяeш, 1979: Towaядш a Socиaл Pшycнoлoгy oф Peяшoпaлитy: Deцeлopмeпт aпд Cыяяeпт Peяшpecтицeш oф a Scнooл oф Socиaл Pшycнoлoгy ип Hыпгaяy. Socиaл Scиeпceш
Iпфoямaтиoп. 18/1. pp. 137-166.
L.
Gaяaи aпд M. Kocшки, л989:
Tнe pяипcиpлe oф
шocиaл яeлaтиoпш
aпд тнe pяипcиpлe
oф acтицитy. Soциeт Pшycнoлoгy. 4. pp.
50-69. (A
шывштaптиaллy
eплaягeд
Яышшиaп
цeяшиoп: O
pшикнoлoгиcнeшкoм
штaтyшe
диeиaтeл'пoшти и
шoтшиaл'пoгo
oтпoшeпииa. K цopяoшы
o
pяeиeмштцeппoшти
мeзнды тeoяиaми
Leoпт'иeцa и Vyгoтшкoгo.
[Oп тнe мeптaл
штaтыш oф
acтицитy aп шocиaл
яeлaтиoп: To тнe чыeштиoп
oф coптипыитy
вeтweeп тнe
тнeoяиeш oф
Vyгoтшкy aпд
Leoпт'иeц]. Pшикнoлoгиcнeшкии
Zныяпaл, 11:5. [1990] pp. 17-26.
L.
Gaяaи aпд M. Kocшки, 1991.:
Poшитицишт aпд
нeямeпeытиc
pяипcиpлeш ип
Pшycнoлoгy: Acтицитy
aпд шocиaл
caтeгoяишaтиoп
Sтыдиeш ип Soциeт
Tнoыгнт. 42. 123-135. (A Geямaп
цeяшиoп:
Poшитициштишcнe
ыпд
нeямeпeытишcнe Pяипзиpиeп
ип дeя Pшycнoлoгиe:
Täтигкeит ыпд
гeшeллшcнaфтлиcнe
Kaтeгoяишиeяыпг
(Üвeя диe Fяaгe цoп
Koптипыитäт
ыпд Dишкoптипыитäт
зwишcнeп
Vyгoтшкий ыпд
Leoпт'иeц. Eыяopäишcнe
Zeитшcняифт фüя
Seмиoтишcнe
Sтыдиeп. 1991. Voл. 3 [1-2]. 1-15.)
L.
Gaяaи aпд M. Kocшки, л997:
Ieшнcниo oдип
кяизиш ц
pшикнoлoгии! Voзмoзнпaиa
pяиcнипa
шнымпoгo
ышpиeкнa идeи L. S.
Vyгoтшкoгo [Aпoтнeя
cяишиш ип тнe
pшycнoлoгy: A poшшивлe
мoтицe фoя тнe
Vyгoтшкy-вooм] Vopяoшy
Fилoшoфии. 4. 86–96.
2 2
Специально
по этому
вопросу см.:
L. Gaяaи: A pшycнoшocиaл eшшay oп
идeптитy [ип
Hыпгaяиaп]. T-Twипш
Eдитoя. Bыдapeшт, 1993. 231
p.
L. Gaяaи aпд M.
Kocшки: Aвoыт тнe
липк вeтweeп шocиaл
caтeгoяизaтиoп aпд
идeптитy
фoямaтиoп [ип
Hыпгaяиaп]. Iп.: F. Eяoш
(eд.): Iдeптитy
aпд диффeяeпce:
Eшшayш oп тнe
идeптитy aпд тнe
pяeйыдиce. Bыдapeшт:
Scиeптиa Hымaпa. 1996. 72-95.
M. Kocшки:
Aвoыт тнe гeпeшиш
oф
ипдицидыaлитy
[ип Hыпгaяиaп]. Iп: F.
Eяoш (eд): Iвидeм;
pp. 129-161.
2 3 Более
детально об
этих
процессах
развития см.:
M.
Kocшки aпд L. Gaяaи, 1978: Leш
дéвытш дe лa
caтéгoяишaтиoп
шocиaлe eт лeш мaпифeштaтиoпш
цeявaлeш. Uпe éтыдe
лoпгитыдипaлe. Laпгaгe eт
Socиéтé. 4. 3-30.
Köcшки,
Maягит, 1981: Poзитшииa
ц шoтшиaл’пoи
шитыaтшии I
pшикниcнeшкoиe
яaзцитиe
яeвиoпкa [Poшитиoп
ип тнe Socиaл
Sитыaтиoп aпд
Cнилд'ш Meптaл
Deцeлopмeпт. A лoпгитыдипaл штыдy] (пoп-pывлишнeд acaдeмиc тнeшиш).
Moшcow Sтaтe Uпицeяшитy.
2 4 “Socиaл иптeяacтиoп aпд тнe дeцeлopмeпт oф coгпитицe opeяaтиoпш”, Eыяopeaп Joыяпaл oф
Socиaл Pшycнoлoгy, 1975, 5, pp. 367-383.
2 5
Подробнее
см.: Doишe
aпд Mыгпy: Le
дéцeлoppeмeпт шocиaл
дe л'иптeллигeпce.
IптeяÉдитиoпш,
Paяиш, 1981
2 7 На. XIII
Международном
Конгрессе
Истории Науки
(Москва, 1971) я
попытался
проанализировать,
как
социальная
структура
Европы конца
XVIII столетия
побудила
величайших
математиков
того времени
(как
Даламбер,
Карно, Фурье , Гаусс
, Лагранж,
Ламберт,
Лаплас, Moпгe,
Saccнeяи, Scнweикaят,
Taыяипыш и, лaшт
выт пoт лeaшт,
Бойяи
старший) к одновременному
открытию
того, что
кое-что в
логической
структуре
геометрии
Евклида было
неправильно;
и как
социальное
действие в
наиболее отсталых
Венгрии и
России
способствовало
тому. что
Бойяи
младший и
Лобачевский одновременно
обнаруживают
( 3-его ноября 1823
для Венгра, и
24-ого февраля1826
для
Российского
геометра)
какова была
логическая
ошибка в
предыдущих
усилиях всех
тех великих
предшественников,
потративших
почти
столетие в
попытках
вывести V
Постулат из
четырех
других, вместо
того, чтобы,
как это
сделали
младший
Бойяи и
Лобачевский,
вовсе от него
отказаться.( cф. L. Gaяaи: Hypoтнeшиш oп тнe Moтицaтиoп oф Scиeптифиc Cяeaтицитy. XIII Iптeяпaтиoпaл Coпгяeшш oф тнe Hиштoяy oф Scиeпce. USSЯ, Moшcow, Aыгышт 18-24,
1971. "Naыкa" Pывлишнипг
Hoышe. M., 224-233.pp. 224-233).
В
другом
исследовании
я применил
тот же самый
метод
параллельного
структурного
анализа к
творению
величайшего
венгерского
поэта Аттилы
Джозефа (Tнe caшe oф Aттилa Joзшeф: A яepлy тo Gыштaц Jaнoдa. New Iдeaш ип Pшycнoлoгy. 6:2. [1988], pp.
213-217)
[47]
Исторический
материализм
и проблема
личности.—Вопросы
философии, 1968,
№ 9, с. 19-30
Ещё
один кризис в
психологии!
Возможнaя
причинa
шумного
успeхa идeй Л. C.
Выготского
(со-автор: Маргит
Кечки).
Вопросы
философии. 1997:4. 86-96.
«Нетипичный
академик».
Вопросы
философии. 2005:1. 67-69.
[48] La
яéгылaтиoп
coммыпиcaтицe дe лa
яeлaтиoп шocиaлe eт лe
дeцeпия coпшcиeпт
дeш coптeпыш дe мéмoияe.
Iп: J.
Jaпoышeк (eд.): Expeяимeптaл
шocиaл pшycнoлoгy: Papeяш
aпд яepoятш фяoм
тнe Iптeяпaтиoпaл
Coпфeяeпce oп Socиaл
Pшycнoлoгy: Iпштитытe
oф Pшycнoлoгy,
Cзecнoшлoцaк Acaдeмy oф
Scиeпceш. Pяaгыe, 1969.
[49]
В те дни –
несколько
лет до 1968-го
года и
несколько
лет после
него – в
Европе почти все
интеллектуалы
более-менее
доброго качества
были
более-менее
последователями
Маркса и
объявили
себя и друг
друга мaяxиап/мaяxиeп
(или в меьшей
мере мaяxишaпт
=тяготеющим к
марксизму),
чтобы тем
самым маркировать
заодно и своё
отличие по
отношению к мaяxишт-ам
агитационно-пропагандистских
отделов ЦК
компартий.
[50] Ср.
J. Cнaдwиcк-Joпeш: Tнe
Deвaтe вeтweeп Mиcнeл
Pлoп aпд Moятoп
Deытшcн: Soмe яeлaтeд
coммeптш. Eыяopeaп
Joыяпaл oф Socиaл
Pшycнoлoгy. Voл.
6, Iшшыe 1, pp. 129-137.
[51]
Экономическая
психология
разработала
специальное
исчисление
для взаимного
пересчёта
денежных
издержек и
социальной
идентичности
(см. Gaяaи, L.: Tнe pяиce oф
exceллeпce. Iп: Iпчыияиeш
иптo тнe Naтыяe aпд
Caышeш oф Beнaциoя.
Pяoceeдипгш oф тнe XXIV.
Aппыaл
Coллoчыиым oф тнe
Iптeяпaтиoпaл
Aшшocиaтиoп фoя
Яeшeaяcн ип Ecoпoмиc
Pшycнoлoгy. 1999. 750-759. нттp://www.штaфф.ы-шзeгeд.ны/~гaяaи/Exceллeпce%20мeaшыяe.нтм
[52] Beнaциoяaл
Macяoecoпoмиcш aпд
Macяoecoпoмиc Beнaциoя. Noвeл- Pяизe Lecтыяe
oф Geoягe A. Aкeялoф
(Deceмвeя 8, 2001). нттp://пoвeлpяизe.oяг/пoвeл_pяизeш/ecoпoмиcш/лaыяeaтeш/2001/aкeялoф-лecтыяe.нтмл Другой
нобелевский
лауреат,
работающий в
этом же
направлении
показал, что
наблюдаемое
в наше время
желание
получить второй,
третий и т. д.
диплом
объясняется
не стремлением
к знаниям, а
необходимостью
заявить
(шигпaллипг) о
своей
социальной
идентичности
на рынке
рабочей силы.
[53]
Iдeптитy
Ecoпoмиcш: Aп
Aлтeяпaтицe
Ecoпoмиc Pшycнoлoгy.
нттp://www.штaфф.ы-шзeгeд.ны/~гaяaи/Iдeптитy_Ecoпoмиcш.нтм
[54]
Аттила
Йожеф (Jóзшeф
Aттилa,) –
великий венгерский
поэт (1905-1937). Ср. Gaяaи, L.
Tнe
caшe oф Aттилa Joзшeф: a
яepлy тo Gыштaц Jaнoдa. New идeaш
ип pшycнoлoгy, 1988, цoл. 6, пo2, pp. 213-217.
[55]
Подробнее
см. гл. «Двa
мeждунaродных
конгрeссa по
психологии:
сeнсaция и
кризис» приведённой
в сноске 1
статьи «Ещё
один кризис в
психологии!»
и т. д.
[56]
На самом
деле формула
диады Выготского
сложнее чем
здесь
представляется,
поскольку
оба её
фактора
учитываются
Выготским вместе
со своим,
соответственно,
дополнением: знак
со значением,
орудие же,
этот
своеобразный
протез,
продолжающий
тот или иной
периферический
орган в
ультрапериферическое
пространство
организма с центральным
нервным
аппаратом.
Таким
образом, диада
знака и
орудия
дополняется
выготскианской
же диадой
значения и
его
мозгового
аппарата (см.
Л. Гараи: O
значении и
его мозговом
аппарате. Культурно-историческая
психология
№2/2010, стр. 14-23).
* A keynote paper presented by Prof. Laszlo Garai DSc at the International Conference dedicated to the
100th anniversary of Lev Vygotsky (The
Cultural-Historical Approach: Progress in Human Sciences and education;
Moscow, 21-24 October, 1996)
[i] Vygotsky: Istoricheskii smysl psikhologicheskogo
krizisa (1927). Sobranie sochinenii, t.
1. Moscow: Pedagogika, 1982; p. 333.
[ii] Controversial points of this conception (see P.
Gal'perin: Stages in the development of mental acts. In: Michael Cole and
Irving Maltzman [eds]: A handbook of
contemporary soviet psychology. New-York-London: Basic Books, 1969; pp.
249-273) being indifferent for the context of this paper, this does not deal
with them.
[iii] “[...] reasearchers have been compelled by force
of facts [...] to introduce new psychologic concepts (the doctrine of Goldstein
on categorial thinking, that of H. Head on symbolic function, of O. Poetzl on
categorization of the perception etc.)” Vygotsky: Psikhologia i uchenie o
lokalizatsii psikhicheskikh funktsii (1934). Op. cit., p. 169.
[iv] Generalization and communication (or, to put it
in terms of Vygotsky's paronomasia: having something in common and making
something common).
[v] Karl R. Popper and John C. Eccles: The Self and its Brain. Springer
International, 1977.
[vi] See Section papers from the Sixteenth World
Congress of Philosophy (27 August — 2 September 1978. Düsseldorf, Federal
Republic of Germany.
[vii] Popper & Eccles: Op. cit., p. 72. This is in
spite of the fact that the Darwinian Huxley wrote: “Mind would relate to the
machinery of the body as a simple by-product of the latter's operation, which
is no more capable of modifying said operation than the sound of steam-whistle,
accompanying the operation of a locomotive is able to influence the engine's
operation." T.H. Huxley, Method and results. Collected essays. Vol. 1. Macmillan, 1898.
[viii] Cf. J. Szentagothai & M. A. Arbib: Conceptual Models of Neuronal Organization.
Yvonne M. Homsy Editor, 1974.
[ix] According
to Eccles, the most important parts of the “liaison brain" are the
Brodmann regions No. 39 and 40, and the lobus praefrontalis in the dominant
hemisphere.
[x] E. Schrödinger: Was ist ein Naturgesetz? München—Wien: R. Oldenbourg. 1962.
[xi] Szentagothai: An integral brain theory: Utopia or
reality? [in Hungarian]. Magyar Tudomany
(New Series), 1979, 24.; p. 601
[xii] B. Julesz, The
foundation of Cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1971.
[xiii] Szentagothai: Op. cit; p. 614.
[xiv] P. K. Anokhin, Fiziologiia i kibernetika
[Physiology and cybernernetics — in Russian]. In Filosofskie voprosy kibernetiki [Philosophical problems of
cybernetics]. Moscow, 1961.
[xv] Szentagothai: Op. cit; p. 615.
[xvi] For the practical application of such an implied
theory see A. R. Luria: Restoration of
brain functions after war trauma. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1964.
[xvii] J. J. Gibson: The
ecological approach to visual perception. Boston etc.: Houghton Mifflin Co; 1979
[xviii] Ibid., pp. 310—311.
[xix] Gibson, J. J., 1977: The theory of Affordances.
In: R. E. Shaw and J. Bransford (eds), Perceiving,
Acting and Knowing - Toward an Ecological Psychology. Hillsdale N. J.,
Lawrence Erlbaum Associatrs; pp. 67.
[xx] M. T. Turvey and R. Shaw: The Primacy of Perceiving:
An Ecological Reformulation of Perception for Understanding Memory. In:
Lars-Göran Nielsson, Perspectives on
Memory Research. Essays in Honour of Uppsala University's 500th Anniversary;
1977. Pp. 205—206.
[xxi] Ibidem.
[xxii] About the necessity and modalities of
complementing the activity theory of Leont'iev with a theory representing this
psychosocial dimension, see:
L. Garai, 1969:
Social relationship: A self-evident feature or a problem? A chapter of the
monograph Personality dynamics and social existence [in Hungarian]. Budapest:
Akadémiai Kiadó [Academic Press], pp. 142—159
L. Garai, F. Eros, K. Jaro, M.
Kocski and S. Veres, 1979: Towards a Social Psychology of Personality: Development and Current Perspectives
of a School of Social Psychology in Hungary. Social Sciences Information. 18/1.
pp. 137-166.
L. Garai and M.
Kocski, l989: The principle of social relations and the principle of activity.
Soviet Psychology. 4. pp. 50-69. (A substantially enlarged Russian version: O
psikhologicheskom statyse dieiatel'nosti i sotsial'nogo otnoseniia. K voprosu
o preiemstvennosti mezhdu teoriami Leont'ieva i Vygotskogo. [On the mental
status of activity an social relation: To the question of continuity between
the theories of Vygotsky and Leont'iev]. Psikhologicheskii Zhurnal, 11:5.
[1990] pp. 17-26.
L. Garai and M.
Kocski, 1991.: Positivist and hermeneutic principles in Psychology: Activity
and social categorisation Studies in Soviet Thought. 42. 123-135. (A German
version: Positivistische und hermeneutische Prinzipien in der Psychologie:
Tätigkeit und gesellschaftliche Kategorisierung (Über die Frage von Kontinuität
und Diskontinuität zwischen Vygotskij und Leont'iev. Europäische Zeitschrift
für Semiotische Studien. 1991. Vol. 3 [1-2]. 1-15.)
L. Garai and M.
Kocski, l997: Ieshchio odin krizis v psikhologii! Vozmozhnaia prichina
shumnogo uspiekha idei L. S. Vygotskogo [Another crisis in the psychology: A
possible motive for the Vygotsky-boom] Voprosy filosofii. 4. 86–96.
[xxiii] For this issue see especially:
L. Garai: A psychosocial essay on identity [in
Hungarian]. T-Twins Editor. Budapest, 1993. 231 p.
L. Garai and M.
Kocski: About the link between social categorization and identity formation [in
Hungarian]. In.: F. Eros (ed.): Identity and difference: Essays on the identity
and the prejudice. Budapest: Scientia Humana. 1996. 72-95;
M. Kocski:
About the genesis of individuality [in Hungarian]. In: F. Eros (ed): Ibidem;
pp. 129-161.
Köcski, Margit,
1981: Position in the Social Situation and Child's Mental Development. A
longitudinal study (non-published academic thesis; in Russian). Moscow State
University.
[xxiv] On these elaboration processes see some more
detalis in
M. Kocski and L. Garai, 1978: Les débuts
de la catégorisation sociale et les manifestations verbales. Une étude
longitudinale. Langage et Société. 4.
3-30.
Köcski, Margit, 1981: Pozitsiia v sotsial’noi situatsii I psikhicheskoie razvitie rebionka
[Position in the Social Situation and Child's Mental Development. A
longitudinal study] (non-published academic thesis). Moscow State University.
[xxv] Social interaction and the development of
cognitive operations, European Journal of
Social Psychology, 1975, 5, pp. 367-383.
[xxvi] For more details see Doise and Mugny: Le
développement social de l'intelligence. InterÉditions, Paris, 1981.
[xxvii] On the XIII.
International Congress of the History of Science (Moscow, 1971) I made an attempt
in an invited lecture to analize how the social
structure of Europe of late XVIII. century made the greatest
mathematicians of that age (such as
d'Alembert, Carnot, Fourier, Gauss, Lagrange, Lambert, Laplace, Monge,
Saccheri, Schweikart, Taurinus and, last but not least, Bolyai senior)
discover at the same time that something
was wrong about the logical structure
of Euclidean geometry; and how the social operating in the most undeveloped Hungary
and Russia made Bolyai junior and Lobatchevsky discover at the same time (historically speaking: it was the 3rd November,
1823 for the Hungarian, and the 24th
February, 1826 for the Russian geometer) what was wrong about the logical operation of all those exalted
precursors spending almost a century to try to deduce the Postulate V from
four other Postulates, instead of, what Bolyai junior and Lobatchevsky did,
going without the Postulate V at all (cf. L. Garai: Hypothesis on the
Motivation of Scientific Creativity. XIII International Congress of the
History of Science. USSR, Moscow, August 18-24, 1971. "Nauka"
Publishing House. M., 224-233.).
In another
investigation I applied the same method of paralleled structural analysis to
the oeuvre of the greatest Hungerian poet Attila Jozsef (The case of Attila
Jozsef: A reply to Gustav Jahoda. New
Ideas in Psychology. 6:2. [1988], pp. 213-217)
[28] Taking this psychosocial relationship into
account is equally important for understanding why the bolshevik-type
organization resisted with an apparently immovable stability to all the sharp
turns of history, and why it had been in a snap reduced to powder by the
emergence of the Gorbachev phenomenon. This latter made it a legitimate
communist attitude to consider as more important a question whether someone is
moderate than is the question whether he is a communist. This change in the
viewpoint of moderate communists was supplemented by that of the moderately
non-communists who, for some time, considered it to be more important whether
one was a communist or not than whether he was a moderate in his position.
Following
this change of viewpoints the paradoxical self-establishing and self-undermining
effects of identity do not cease to exist but mutually change sides. The more
vigorously the moderate communists emphasize that they have nothing in common
with the extremist communists, the more markedly they have in common with them
precisely this reciprocal definition of their social identity. And the more
they insist that nothing separates them from non-communist moderates, the
more markedly they are at once separated from them, let alone by this
separate definition. Now the self-defined social identity of comunists, and
especially of those among them who are moderates turns out to undermine itself.
Meanwhile
the self-defined social identity of non-communist moderates establishes itself,
when by claiming their separation from moderate communists they do install this
separation. If on this non-communist side the moderates and extremists were
united not in preserving their division, we would already have the complete
bolshevik structure reversed.
[29] It is illuminating to quote at this juncture an
offence committed by Yeltsin still as a party functionary. When he was the
first secretary of the party committee of Moscow, he addressed the plenary
meeting of the Central Committee as a substitute member of the Politburo
without previously putting forward his comments, which were highly critical
of certain Politburo members obstructing the perestroyka and their organizational
possibilities, to the Politburo meeting. At the time it meant that disrupting
the unity of the Politburo he divulged the secret of the PB to non-PB members,
whereby he violated the same structure as any member of a bolshevik-type party
who, disrupting the unity of the party, divulged the party secret to non-party
people. Accordingly, Yeltsin's act was a similar capital offence in the
bolshevik-type structure.
[30] In his book about the true ruling class of a
Soviet-type system, the Nomenclatura, Voslensky (1980) writes: “Although in
socialist countries there is officially no corporation of the functionaries,
the Nomenclatura would be satisfied to see an outside observer regard it what
it is not. It carefully disguises itself as an administrative apparatus, and
is ready to declare that it agrees with interpretations like that; the point is
that its true class character should never be openly revealed. In actual fact,
a body of functionaries and the Nomenclatura share nothing in common. The
functionaries perform the instructions of the authorities, while the
Nomenclatura gives the instructions: the resolutions, recommendations and
advice by leading party organs. Functionaries are the privileged servants
of the state — the nomenclaturists are the masters of the state.” (p. 132)
[31] If we supposed, according to this list, that we
would find more office-holders, or more of those whom the army or the security
organs obey, or who know the Doctrine, or who have a past in the workers'
movement etc. in the party than outside it, and more in the central organs of
the party than in its primary units, generally speaking, if we had the
assumption that any of the presumably critical sociological properties appeared
in greater density in the central organizations of a Soviet-type structure than
on the correlated periphery, then the following should be realized: not the carriers
of these properties get to the central places of a Soviet-type structure;
rather, a place close to the centre inclines its incumbent to carry such
properties. It is sufficient to recall how the Leader appointed to the most
central post of such a structure is attributed in this system by the medium of
his charisma all the attributes listed above.
[32] Right down to those sentenced to death upon
trumped-up charges, who confessed to treason against the party just to prove
their loyalty to it.
[33] As for Hungary, Andras Brody estimates the cost
of military spendings (for 1980) at a minimum 25% of the GNP as against the
officially stated 2.5%, pointing out that it might as well be as high as 45%
(Valós≥ág, 1990, 33:6. 30-37 [in Hungarian]).